Contents

Stress Strain Elasticity and Plasticity Hookes Law Elastic Limit Stress and Strain Diagram Types of Material Elongation
Extension of Bar due to Applied Weight In bar of uniform cross-section Elongation of tapering bar Extension of Bar due to Self Weight Extension in length of bar of uniform cross-section Extension in conical bar Extension in composite bars

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 9 9 11 11 12 13

Shear Stress Bulk Modulus (K) Poissons Ratio () Modulus of Rigidity (C)

14 14 15 15

Interrelations between E, , K and C

Relation between E, and K Relation between E, and C Relation between E, C and K

16
16 16 17

Strain Energy Suddenly Applied Load Impact Loading Properties of Material Hardness Tests
Brinell Hardness test Rockwell Hardness test Vickers Hardness Test

19 20 20 21 23
23 25 26

Stress
The internal restoring force per unit area set up within the body, when deformed by the external force is called stress.

Stress =

SI unit is Nm-2 Stress is tensor quantity

Tensile stress

Compressive stress

Strain
The strain in a body is measured as the change in the relevant dimension per unit dimension.

Strain = Longitudinal Strain Strain is tensor quantity

Dimensionless quantity, strain is tensor quantity.

Elasticity and Plasticity

The property of the body due to which it tends to regain its size and shape when the applied forces is removed from it is known as elasticity and the deformation produced in the body is called elastic deformation. In case, after the applied force is removed, the body does not regain its original size and shape it is known as plasticity and the deformation produced in body is called plastic deformation.

Hookes Law
As you know from a spring, if you gradually stretch it, the force needed increases, but the material springs back to its original shape when the force is released. Materials which react in the same way as a spring are said to be elastic. Typically if we measure the extension of different forces and plot the graph of this, we will find that the extension is proportional to the force applied. Materials that obey Hookes Law exhibit a linear relationship between the strain and the applied stress. Hookes law states that within the elastic limit the stress is directly proportional to strain.

Stress

Strain

= modulus of elasticity

Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force up to which the body regains its original size or shape completely on removal of deforming force and the body loss its property of elasticity and gets permanently deformed if deforming force is further increased.

Stress and Strain Diagram

Types of Material
1. Homogenous and isotropic material: All elastic properties are same at each point and in all direction. 2. Rigid and linearly elastic material: Not deform on applying any amount of load. 3. Plastic material and rigid plastic: Deformation is continuous even after the removal of load. 4. Ductile and brittle material.

Elongation
1. Extension of Bar due to Applied Weight

a) Elongation in Bar of Uniform Cross-Section

=E =E =E

b) Elongation of Tapering Bar

 [ ]

2. Extension of Bar due to Self-Weight

a) Extension in length of bar of uniform crosssectional area due to its own weight

[ ]

a) Extension in conical bar

( ) ( )

( (

) )


( )

c) Extension in composite bars

Shear Stress

To keep this body in equilibrium complementary stress will be there, so that body stays in equilibrium. =

If only shearing is applied /acted on the body and no other stress is applied it is called simple or pure stress.

Bulk Modulus (K)

Bulk modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress and volumetric strain. V1 = xyz V2 = (x+dx)(y+dy)(z+dz) dV = (x+dx)(y+dy)(z+dz) xyz = (xy+xdy+ydx+dxdy)(z+dz) xyz = xyz + xzdy + yzdx + zdxdy + xydz + xdydz + ydxdz + dxdydz xyz = xydz + yz dx + xzdy

=
v

=
z x

+
y

Bulk Modulus = K =

Poissons Ratio ()
Poisson ratio is the ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain. The value of is various from 0.25 to 0.33 in general.

Modulus of Rigidity (C)

It is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. C=

Interrelations between E, , K & C

Relation between E, and K

Relation between E, and C

Relation between E, C and K

From eq. (ii) E = 2C (1+ )

-1=

Putting this value in eq. (i)

[ ( ( E = 9K -

( ) )

)]

E+

= 9K

E (1+

) = 9K

E(

) = 9K

E=

E=

= 2C (1+ ) =

Strain Energy
When an external force acts on a elastic material and deforms it , the external resistance is developed due to cohesive force between the molecules of the material. The internal resistance does same work which is stored in the material as strain energy.

Work done = average load x elongation

Suddenly Applied Load

Work done = P U=P U=
2 suddl/E 2

suddAl/E

suddAl/E

=P

suddl/E

sudd

=2

gradual)

Impact Loading
w(h + l) = w(h +
2 i 2 impactAl/E

l) = i i

2 iAl

- wh = 0 =0 ]
(Quadratic Equation) (Neglect ve root)

2 i

[1+

i=

Properties of Material
1. Strength It is the ability of the material to sustain the load without failure.

2. Stiffness It is the ability of the material to resist deformation. Material having more modulus of elasticity has more stiffness.

3. Toughness Amount of energy a material can absorb before failure.

4. Resilience Amount of energy a material can absorb within the elastic limit.

5. Hardness Hardness is the property of the material to resist penetration, wear and tear and scratching.

6. Fatigue If a material is loaded with a fluctuating load the material tend to develop different behaviour other than the behaviour under steady load.

7. Creep It is the slow plastic deformation even if we dont increase the load.

8. Elasticity

9. Plasticity

10. Ductility

Malleability

Hardness Tests
The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or resistance to abrasion. The most common hardness tests are:

i) Brinell hardness test ii) Rockwell hardness test iii) Vickers hardness test

1. Brinell Hardness test

This is a method of indentation hardness. This method uses s steel of 10mm diameter as indenter. The indenter is first pace upon the surface whose the hardness is to be measured and then a gradually increasing load of 3000 kgf is applied upon the indenter. When the load is removed, an indentation is left upon the surface. If the material is hard, instead of steel ball, a tungsten carbide indenter is used. For softer material, a lower load of 500 kgf is applied to avoid very deep indentation. The diameter on indention is measured by a low power microscope.

Brinell hardness number (BHN) = 2 P / ( D (D - (D2 - d2)1/2)) where P = load on the indenting tool (kg)

D = diameter of steel ball (mm) d = measure diameter at the rim of the impression (mm)

The calculated value of B.H.N may have slight error because of elastic recovery which takes place after the removal of load. For harder material elastic recovery is greater than for softer materials.

Precautions: 1. The test should not be performed on thin specimen. 2. Impression (indentation) should make too close to the edge of a specimen. 3. There should be proper gap between two successive impressions. 4. The Brinell test should be performed on smooth, flat specimen from which dirt and scale have been cleaned.

Advantages: 1. Surface preparation is not so critical as these in Rockwell test. 2. Its result correlates well with tensile properties. 3. The impression made by the Brinell machine is large enough to give a fairly representative hardness, which are not often by small soft spots small hard spots. Limitations: 1. Size of the indentation produced is large so it is similar to destructive test. 2. The Brinell test is entirely reliable. 3. Test equipment is heavy and bulky.

2. Rockwell Hardness test

Rockwell tester use small penetrators and smaller loads than does the Brinell tester. In this two types of indenters i.e. a Brale indenter in form of 120 degree diamond cone or steel balls of 1/16 and 1/8 inch diameter are used Rockwell hardness is measured an on arbitrary scale in which hardness number is inversely proportional to the depth of penetration.

The specimen is placed on the anvil of the machine and then a minor of 10 kgf is applied on the specimen through the indenter. This minor load helps to seat the specimen. Then the dial indicator is set at zero and then a major load of 60 100 or 150 kg is applied, forcing the penetrator into the specimen. The depth of indentation is automatically recorded as hardness number on a dial gauge. The dial of the dial gauge is divided into 100 divisions with each division representation a penetration of 0.002 mm. the dial scale is reserved so that a small indentation depth is read as high hardness.

3. Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests since the required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials

irrespective of hardness. The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness, is to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic deformation from a standard source. The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH). The hardness number can be converted into units of pascals, but should not be confused with a pressure, which also has units of pascals. The hardness number is determined by the load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.