INTRODUCTION LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light sourc e.

LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used fo r other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across t he visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the ligh t (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrat ed optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present m any advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumptio n, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LED s powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more pr ecise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of Compa rable output. FUNCTION: LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. PRINCIPLE: The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impu rities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from t he p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction . Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with di fferent voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy le vel, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes , the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produce s no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materi als used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to nearinfrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wave lengths, emitting light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, oc cur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire subst rate. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This m eans that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/ai r surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LE D production, subject to much research and development. REFRACTIVE INDEX: Bare uncoated semiconductors such as silicon exhibit a very hi gh refractive index relative to open air, which prevents passage of photons at s harp angles relative to the air-contacting surface of the semiconductor. This pr operty affects both the light-emission efficiency of LEDs as well as the light-a bsorption efficiency of photovoltaic cells. The refractive index of silicon is 4 .24, while air is 1.0002926. OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS: Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no m ore than 3060 mill watts (mW) of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt. These LEDs used muc h larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the sem iconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die. LIFE TIME: 25,000 to 100,000 hours, but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. FAILURE: The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare , can occur as well. Early red LEDs were notable for their short lifetime. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction

temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantita tively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use t he terms L75 and L50, which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 75% an d 50% light output respectively. PERFORMANCE DEPENDS ON: Like other lighting devices, LED performance is temperat ure dependent. Most manufacturers published ratings of LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25 C. LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement s ignal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the luminaries gets very hot, could result in low signal intensities or even failur e. LED light output rises at lower temperatures, leveling off depending on type at around 30C. Thus, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as superm arket freezer lighting and will last longer than other technologies. Because LED s emit less heat than incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient technolog y for uses such as freezers. However, because they emit little heat, ice and sno w may build up on the LED luminaries in colder climates. This lack of waste heat generation has been observed to cause sometimes significant problems with stree t traffic signals and airport runway lighting in snow-prone areas, although some research has been done to try to develop heat sink technologies to transfer hea t to other areas of the luminaries. COLOURS OF LED: LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue an d white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the col ouring of the package (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as water clear ). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standa rd type) or transparent. COLOURS AND MATERIAL: Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic sem iconductor materials, the following table shows the available colors with wavele ngth range, voltage drop and material. USES: uses of light emitting diode are: Use in traffic light Use in digital watches Use in quiz contests Use in alarm Use in TV Use in decoration. Is also used for many purpose like is used for plantation,cars light,.etc.