Chapter 4 Compounding Additives

In this chapter: Purpose Introduction Compounding Compounding Problems Methods of Compounding Dry Mixers Batch Mixers Continuous Mixers Single Stage Screw Extruders Extruder Mixing Principle Extruder Screw Geometry Mixing Section Compression Section Metering Section Two Stage Compounding Extrusion Twin Screw Extruders The Compounding Process Dry Mixing The Extruder Compounder Downstream Equipment Pelletizer Quality Control Additives Process Additives Process Stabilizers Processing Aids Lubricants Mold Release Agents Nucleating Agents Blowing Agents Functional Additives Stabilizing Additives Antioxidants Light Stabilizers Metal Deactivators Flame Retarding Agents Modifiers Colorants Plasticizers Impact Modifiers Fillers Reinforcements Anti Static Agents Whitening Agents Biocides Summary

Purpose The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to the two concepts central to the preparation of plastic materials for manufacturers. The first concept is the mixing additives into plastic materials. The second portion of this chapter

explains how additives are used to enhance both the properties of plastic materials and to improve quality of plastic products.

Introduction Compounding is the process of mixing various additives with a base plastic material. Most plastics materials cannot be processed in their natural post-polymerized condition. Post-polymerized plastics are the raw materials, they must be enhanced for processing. Plastic materials without process additives decompose during processing and produce useless products. Early compounding technology focused on the addition of additives that enhanced and stabilized the material during manufacturing. Today the compounding of additives plays a large role in modifying the properties, imparting technical advantages, and enhancing the performance characteristics of plastic materials in all their product applications. The development of new uses for plastics materials largely depends on the creative use of additives. There are thousands of additives; but each one fall into 16 different categories. Additives are formulated to improve process ability, these are called process additives. Process additives improve the materials ability to be melted, molded, shaped, and compressed without decomposition. If additives are used to provide stable products, these are called functional additive. Functional additives improve the plastic's product life by enhancing the chemical, physical, and environmental properties of the material. In recent years the extensive use of plastic materials has been due to the development of functional additives. But, plastics materials can only be produced with the addition of both process and functional additives. Compounding Compounding relies on the understanding of mixing principles. Mixing principles deal with the production of a homogeneous mass, uniform in composition and structure. There are three basic mixing principles that must be considered: First, the surface area between the components must be spread so that more of the materials are in contact with each other. In compounding this is accomplished by melting the plastic and kneading, smearing, folding, stretching, wiping, compressing, and shearing it with the additives. In addition, the rate of shear and the mixing forces must be uniform throughout the compounding process. All portions of the plastic material must follow the same path, experience the same shear and heat history. Third, the additive must be distributed equally throughout the mixture to form a uniform mix. Compounding is accomplished by shearing the plastic's melt at right angles in the direction of flow, controlling the speed or shear rate, and by varying the gap between the stationary and rotating elements of the mixing device.

Compounding Problems There are four problems that a compounder must solve when mixing plastics with additives. The first problem occurs when organic plastics are mixed with inorganic additives, such as glass fibers. The plastic automatically repels inorganic glass fillers and also forms clumps of glass and globs of plastic during mixing. The natural repulsion between the organic and inorganic matter is overcome by controlling the mixing process and the use of appropriate chemical coupling agents. Coupling agents have two chemical components that adhere to each other. One component easily coats, and wets out the surface of the plastic while the other part coats the glass fiber. The coupling agent is formulated for a specific plastic material and coated on the glass surface prior to mixing. The second problem involves the plastic molecule's tendency to break down from the heat. Many plastic materials are shear sensitive. The intensive mixing action coupled with heat and high pressure accelerates the breakup of shear sensitive plastics molecules. This problem is partially overcome by designing the mixer geometry so that it is less intensive. Both nylon and polycarbonate are shear sensitive materials and require special mixing techniques. The third problem is the complex flow behavior of plastic materials. Unlike water, which can be mixed at any speed without a change in its viscosity, plastics act differently. Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to flow. Thick fluids have high viscosity while thin fluids a low in viscosity. Water does not change its viscosity. The water molecule is of uniform consistency, the plastics molecules is far more randomly sized with an entangled molecular structure. In turn, the plastic molecule exhibits higher resistance to flow. The heat transfer in molten plastics is very difficult. In order to melt plastic the mixing action must pulls apart the large plastic molecules and at the same time mix in the additives. If the shearing action is too high or too fast the molecules will break and decompose. Furthermore, when mixing action increases, the viscosity of the plastics decreases. With the increased mixing, the plastics molecule becomes untangled, grows farther apart, which creates more room to move. The increased distance between the molecules reduces the chain Van der Waal's force which allows the molecules to slip and melt. Heat generated from the mixing action helps to accelerate this process. As the plastic melts the heat required to maintain the melt decreases. However, if the mixing action is applied too fast, the long plastic molecules that do not have the time to untangle, will break and decompose. Additionally, shearing action will tend to physically break the lower viscosity molecules. The shearing and mixing action must be controlled and changed in relation to the change in viscosity of the plastic.

The fourth problem occurs because of the physical nature of some additives and the difficulty to disperse them evenly throughout the mixture. Additives of various sizes with sharp edges or rough surfaces will increase the viscosity of the plastic melt by interfering with the slip between molecules. If the additives are not uniformly mixed, batch to batch uniformity difficult. These problems are addressed by:

Selecting the correct compounding process for plastic material and additives. Controlling the dry mixing of additives and materials prior to compounding. Formulating master batches that are then dry mixed with the base plastic. Controlling the compounder's mixing and shearing stress. Methods of Compounding There are four basic methods used for compounding plastics with their additives: dry mixer, batch mixer, continuous mixer, and screw extruder. The selection of the method determined by the condition of the material, the volume of end product required, and the sensitivity of the material to breakdown during shear. The compounding process includes two stages: (1), mixing the materials and (2) forming the mixture into pellets, sheets, rods, or lumps.

Dry Mixers Dry mixer are preferred for powders, plastic pellets with fibers, and plasticizer with PVC. Powders are dry, finely ground plastics and their ingredients. Plastic are often mixed with glass, carbon, or metals fiber to increase plastic materials strength and stability. PVC plastic is rigid and must be mixed with lubricating additives called plasticizer to make it flexible. There are four types of dry mixers: high speed impellers, ribbon mixers, paddle mixers and drum tumblers. The high speed impeller mixer, illustrated in Figure 4-1, is used for dry blending powdered resins, such as PVC with its plasticizer and other additives. The mixer consists of an enclosed container with a higher speed impeller mounted at the bottom. An impeller is similar to the rotating blades of a helicopter. The impeller is capable of 80 to 3600 revolutions per minute (RPM). Mixing is fast with materials blended within 2-4 minute cycles. Heat generated during the mixing process must be drawn off through a cooling jacket to retard decomposition of the material and to block the development of lumps. There are two types of high volume/low intensity mixers. The ribbon mixer illustrated in Figure 4-2 and paddle mixers illustrated in Figure 4-3, are used to disperse fibers into plastic pellets. Control of the mixing process is important in these mixers since fibers tend to clump together if the mixing process is too long. The capacity of low intensity mixers are in the hundreds of pounds. The large volumes are feed to extruder compounder. The normal cycles for the low intensive mixing of plastic with glass fibers usually takes from 10 to 20 minutes. The fourth type of dry mixer is the drum tumbler illustrated in Figure 4-4. Drum tumblers are popular with molding operation for the dispersion of powdered colorants with the plastic pellets. In a drum tumbler, plastic pellets (with approximately 1 to 2% colorant) are placed in a 250 gallon paper drum and tumbled dry for approximately 30 minutes. Drum tumblers are used when the additives disperse easily throughout the mixture without tending to lump or cluster together.

Batch Mixers The high intensity batch mixer, illustrated in Figure 4-5, is used for the processing of high viscosity plastics. This plastic is used for the production of vinyl film, sheeting, and vinyl-impregnated cloth. The batch mixer are used to feed callendering process. The callendering process consist of large multiple rolls than flatten the mixed dough like plastic into flat sheets. The thermoplastic materials of PVC, vinyl acetate, polyethylene, polypropylene, ABS and impact modified polystyrenes are the most often used. The thermoset materials of melamine and urea are also batch mixed and then rolled into flat stock for grinding into molding powders. Batch mixers consist of an enclosed steel chamber with internal rotating and intermeshing blades. The rotating blades smear the material against the container wall while it shears and kneads the material at the center. After the cycle is complete, the glob of mixed material is then discharged, ready for callendering into sheets or processing into molding powder or pellets. A variation of the batch mixer is the Banbury mixer developed in 1916. The Banbury mixer uses two spiral shaped rotors and can be easily fed material through the top. When material is discharged the batch is complete and exits through a door at the side. The combination of smearing and intensive working produced by batch mixers results in a highly homogeneous mix. Batch mixers produce material in 2-4 minutes. Batch mixer range in sizes with machine capacities from 2 to 150 pounds.

Continuous Mixers A continuous mixer, illustrated in Figure 4-6, is similar to the Banbury mixer. The material is continuously fed into a hopper end while mixed and transported, by intermeshing irregular screw device to the opposite end. The mixing takes place between the rotating screws and the chamber walls as the material is kneaded between the two screws and scraped off the wall surface. The amount and quality of the material can be controlled by adjusting the rotating speed of the screws, and the amount of material allowed to leave the chamber. The advantage of the continuous mixer over the batch mixer is its ability to provide a continuous mix of material with optimum dispersion. The continuous mixer is capable of production in quantities from 1,000 to 10,000 pounds per hour. The continuous mixer's significantly larger outputs provides the manufacturer of PVC film with higher product rates not possible with batch mixers.

Single Stage Screw Extruders Screw extruders are the process tool used in compounding, injection molding, injection blow molding, extrusion, and extrusion blow molding. Screw extruder consist of a long auger screw that fills the opening of a steel tube. Plastic and additives that are placed at one end of the screw are mixed and melted when the screw turns. Understanding the mixing and melting capabilities of screw extruders is important in understanding compounding technology. They play a critical role in over 70% of the compounded plastic material. Screw extrusion technology is used as the plastic mixing and melting device in four more plastic processes. These four processes consume over 80% of plastic materials. These four process will be covered under process technology in the second half of this text.

A single screw extruders, illustrated in Figure 4-7, is classified by the ratio of the length of the screw to the inside diameter of the barrel. Standard extruders have 30 to 1 ratios. A 1" diameter extruder screw would be approximately 30" long. The size of extruders range from small laboratory models with 1/2 inch diameters to large production extruders with 8" diameter barrels. As the size of the extruders increase so does the ability to produce mixed plastic materials. Extruder outputs range from a few pounds an hour up to 1,000 pounds per hour. Larger extruders are used to produce 24" diameter PVC pipe. The standard compounding extruders are 3 to 4" in diameter with output ranging to 500 pounds per hour. The output of an extruder varies with the melt viscosity of the plastic material. A 3.5" extruder can produce 400 pounds per hour of compounded polycarbonate; however, this drops to 350 pounds an hour when working with higher viscosity of polyphenylene oxide plastic. The screw extruder functions in the same way as a friction pump. The principle of a friction pump can be demonstrated by placing a long board in water and then drawing the board out of the water. The friction between the water and the board's surface will hold some water on the board. This water can be removed by allowing it to drip off. The board can be turned into a rotating pump by twisting the board into the shape of a cork screw. The twisted board can be placed in a tube and laid on the bank of a water pond; the end in the water will act as a pump. By rotating the screw shaped board in the tube, water held at the bottom will be forced to move up the board due to friction between the board and the water. Turn the board fast enough and a large quantity of water can be moved out of the pool and lifted to irrigate crops. This principle was first discovered and used by the Egyptians. A plastic extruder compounder works with the same principle; where a steel auger screw represents the twisted board and the plastic represents the water. The extruder used in compounding is enclosed in a steel tube with two small openings at both ends. One opening on top allows plastics and additives to enter. The second opening at the opposite end shapes the melted and mixed plastic into rods. Plastic in the form of pellets, powder, or granules enter through the small hole in the top of one end of an enclosed steel tube. This is illustrated in Figure 4-8. The steel tube, called a barrel, is wrapped with heating elements to maintain the barrel at the melt temperature of the plastic. A steel auger screw, with an expanding root diameter, fills the center of the tube. The plastic is pumped from one end of the screw to the other by rotating the screw. The rate at which the plastic moves from one end of the extruder to the other is controlled by the speed of the screw. The screw is divided into three section. These section are easily identified by changes in the root diameter of the screw. Figure 4-9 illustrates a standard extruder screw and its three sections. The first section the root diameter remains constant and the material is mix, this section is called mixing. The second section the root diameter begins to expands compressing the material, this section is called the compression section. The final section the root diameter if full expanded and remain constant. In the section the material completely mixed and is called the metering section. The three section of the screw mix, compress and homogenize the plastic between the screw flights and against the walls of steel tube.

Extruder Mixing Principle The rotation of the screw, the friction at the barrel wall, and the forward movement of the screw produce a three way internal mixing of pellets and additives. The mixing process takes place as the friction between the hot wall of the barrel and the plastic melts the outside of the plastic pellet. Rotating the screw rolls and tumbles the mixture back into the center of the space between the screw flights. The leading edges of the screw flight scrapes the melted plastic off the wall of the barrel and collects it into an expanding pool. This process of mixing is illustrated in Figure 4-10. The mixing takes place in all three sections of the screw: dry mixing in the first section, compression and melting in the second section, and complete homogenization in the metering section. The geometry of the screw, the root diameter, the angle of the screw flights change to alter the mixing intensity.

Extruder Screw Geometry The mixing action within the extruder is controlled by screw geometry, the speed of the screw, and the back pressure provided by the constriction of the melt as it passes out the end of the barrel. The geometry of the screw significantly affect plastic melting and mixing. The angle of the screw flights can be changed to reduce the shearing force on the plastic. The length of each section of the screw changes for different materials. When the length of the compression section is increased, this reduces the shear intensity on the plastic. Many plastic materials are shear and heat sensitive. Shear sensitive materials have complex molecules that will decompose if they are compressed too quickly. Polycarbonate is one of these plastics and is called a shear sensitive material. The metering section of the screw can be lengthened to improve the homogeneity of temperature and color additives. There are general purpose screws designed for extruding low melt general purpose plastic materials, and there are specialty screws for compounding shear sensitive materials and for the mixing of abrasive additives.

Mixing Section The plastic material and their additives are introduced into the mixing section at one end of the screw. In the mixing section, the screw's root diameter remains constant. The root of a screw is the center rod that the screw flights are attached and wrapped around. The root diameter increase in size from the mixing section to the metering section on an extruder screw. The root diameter accounts for approximately one third of the space between the barrel wall. As the screw rotates, plastic and additives are softened and mixed. The small constant root diameter in the mixing section mixes the plastic with additives without compressing them. This allows the irregular shaped pellets and additives to soften and settle into open spaces, becoming more compact, and mixing uniformly.

Compression Section As the mixing ends, the compression section begins when the screw's root diameter gradually increases. The gradual increase in the screw's root diameter plus the rotating screw pushes the plastic pellets and additives against the wall of the barrel and screw flights. This compression intensifies the shearing and mixing action of the screw and completes the melting of the plastic. The compression section account for one third of the center of the screw. The length of the compression section can be shortened to increase the shear and mixing of the material or it may be lengthened to decrease these forces.

Metering Section In the final stage, called the metering section, the root diameter is at its largest and remains constant from here on. The metering section intensifies the mixing action and provides for homogenization of the plastic melt with its additives. When the plastic leaves the extruder, it emerges with physical and thermal homogeneity, ready to be shaped by a strand die.

Two Stage Compounding Extruders

The high shear rates induced by the extruder's compressive section and the abrasive properties of certain additives require that a compounding extruder screw be constructed in two stages with six sections. Figure 4-11 illustrates a two stage extruder screw. The two stage screw is similar to two single stage screws attached end to end. The first stage allows for an initial low intensity melting of the plastic with its additives. During the first stage of the compounding process, the heat from the barrel and the shearing action of the screw turns moisture into steam. Short molecules of plastic are decomposed into gas volatiles. These must be drawn out of the plastic melt prior to forming into strands Between the two stages the root diameter of the screw returns to the narrow diameter of the mixing section. In the narrow section between the two stages the mixing pressure is zero. In this section between the two stages any moisture and gas molecules generated in the first stage will be drawn off through by a vacuum center vent, see Figure 4-8.. The is an opening in the barrel, located between the first stage and second stage of the screw. A vacuum is drawn on the vent. Gas in the form of volatiles and steam are removed into a sump. In the vent area plastic tends to build up on the cylinder wall and then decompose blocking the vent's ability and contaminating the material. Any moisture or volatile that remains will damage the final mixing of the plastic or be deposited in the final compounded pellet. Any leftover moisture and volatile gas contaminates the final plastic part and significantly reduce physical or chemical properties. The second stage of compounder extruder provides a second opportunity for the introduction of shear sensitive additives. At the end of the final metering section, a one inch thick steel screen, called a breaker plate, restricts the plastic flow and provides back pressure on the mixing action. The size of the screen determines the amount of back pressure and contributes to the intensity of the mixing action. For color additives a fine wire screen is added, called a screen pack, between the breaker plate and the end of the metering section to assure color homogenization.

Twin Screw Extruders The efficiency of the mixing action of the single screw extruder compounder depends on maintaining higher friction between the wall of the barrel and the material than between the materials and the screw surface. If the friction is higher on the screw surface, plastic will stick to the screw surface, decompose and clog the mixing process. In a single screw, extruder's plastic pastes, flakes. Sometimes low bulk density materials tend to stick to the screw surface. To overcome these restrictions, the twin screw extruder was developed. The twin screw extruder has two screws that are arranged side by side and intermesh. The intermeshing action of the two screws constantly self-wipes the screw flights. It is impossible for plastics to stick to the screw surface. The cross section of the barrel, Figure 4-12, is in the shape of a figure eight. The two screws rotate forcing the materials to form a figure eight pattern. The positive pumping action of the intermeshing screws allows for the compounding of all forms of plastic materials not possible with a single two stage extruder. The Compounding Process The effective use of compounding has made it possible for plastic materials to replace metal in high strength products. For example, Nylon plastic is commonly filled with 40% glass fibers and used in the molding of large valves for sprinkler systems. The glass filled nylon costs approximately $40 compared to a brass valve that costs $340. Glass filled polycarbonate and Acetal have been produced in cams, levers, and wheels effectively replacing metal parts in clocks, kitchen appliances, car accessories, bicycles and electronic appliances. The most dramatic breakthrough has been the graphite, glass bead, glass fiber and carbon fiber filled polyphenylene oxide (PPO) plastic. This compounded plastic has replaced aluminum die cast parts in copiers, printers, plotters, camcorders, and video players. The use of this compounded grade of PPO has allowed these consumer items to be produced in higher qualities which makes them available to more people. The compounded grade of PPO used in the manufacture of chassis is a good example of the advantage of plastics and additive blends. A plastic chassis part for a copier device must meet multiple service requirements to be effective. The part must be rigid and remain flat while the paper or plastic tape moves across the surface. It must have long term stability because any change in dimension will affect the repeatability and accuracy of the copies. Any medium moving across a good insulator will build up static electricity on the insulator's surface. Static electricity can curl paper and short out the sensitive electronic circuit boards. The plastic chassis, which is an excellent insulator, must provide some means for removing the build up of static electricity on its surface. The surface of the part must have dry lubricating qualities so that the paper or plastic tape slides easily across the surface. All these requirements can be met with a stiff polyphenylene oxide (PPO) plastic compounded with additives. The specialty compounded grade of PPO meets these demanding requirements. Polyphenylene oxide is a stiff metal like plastic material. By adding 10% glass fibers its dimensional stability is assured. Ten percent more carbon fiber can be added to reduce static electricity. For the carbon to be an effective conductor of static electricity it must be exposed to the surface of the part. To aid the carbon fiber migration to the surface during molding 2% silicone is added to the surface of the plastic pellet. Static build up is a direct result of friction between the plastic part and the paper or tape. To reduce the friction Teflon, in amounts of 5%, are added to the plastic mix. Teflon acts as a dry lubricant. Since PPO is a stiff material and difficult to mold glass bead are added to act as a processing lubricant. PPO in a natural state is brown in color yet the addition of 4% graphite will produce a dark black plastic. To better understand the compounding process, we will follow PPO from dry mixing, through extrusion, palletizing, and quality assurance.

Dry Mixing A compounding line, illustrated in Figure 4-13, begins with dry mixing the plastic with its additives in a 500 pound capacity paddle mixer. The paddles are turned for about 30 to 90 seconds or until the mix is homogeneous. If the mix is too long, it will develop clumps of glass, while too short a mix will produce an unequal dispersion of glass fibers. Glass fibers are a 1/4" long and provided in bundles. These bundles must be broken up and the finer glass fibers evenly dispersed throughout the dry mixer with the plastic pellets. Carbon fiber, which is very brittle, is added and mixed for 10 to 20 seconds. If the process were longer the brittle carbon fibers would break into to short, ineffectual pieces. Other additives such as Teflon, an internal lubricant, is premixed with a graphite colorant (the color of carbon black) and then added to the paddle mixer. If Teflon powder is not fully dispersed white chunks may form; the process work like this: The mixer has a trap door in the bottom which, when opened, introduces material into the hopper feed tray. The tray then transports the material by (gravity and mechanical vibration) to the extruder hopper loading tray. Since the hopper loading tray is horizontal, and the material will not move to the hopper until vibration is introduced into the tray, the vibration's speed increases the rate of the materials to the hopper. The hopper resembles a large funnel which feeds dry mixed materials into the extruder screw. Silicone, a process lubricant, is added in quantities that equals 2% of the weight of the mixed material. The silicone is not added during the extrusion process, but is applied to the surface of the pellet after extrusion and pelletizing. Silicone added during the compounding process reduces the mixing effectiveness of the compounder. One method for adding silicone is completed by placing the pellets and silicone in a large 250 pound paper drum and tumbling the drum for approximately 30 minutes.

The Extruder Compounder The extruder compounding process accepts material from the dry mixer into its hopper and forces the material past a two stage auger screw, then past a vent, through a breaker plate, and then out a multiple strand die. The dry mixed materials are loaded into the extruder hopper by a vibration tray. By increasing or decreasing the speed of the vibration, the operator controls the amount of materials delivered to the hopper. The compounding extruder is the same as the two-stage single screw extruder discussed earlier. The extruder mixes and compresses the material twice with a vented at the middle. Figures 4-8 and 4-9 illustrates a two stage compounding extruder. A breaker plate, also called a screen pack, Figure 4-14, is attached at the end of the extruder. The breaker plate is constructed of steel. The screen is formed by drilling several holes through the steel plate. The breaker plat add pressure to the flow of plastic by constricting the larger extruder melt stream though the small screen holes of the screen pack. Additionally, an adjustment valve is located between the breaker plate and extruder. By controlling the opening of the valve, back pressure is increased on the melt stream. The back pressure holds the plastic in the extruder longer increasing the mixing time. The combination of the valve and breaker plate control the flow of plastic out the extruder. A die is attached to the front of the breaker plate to form 10 strands of plastic with 3/16 " diameters. In order to accomplish the homogenization of this special grade of PPO several problems must be overcome. Glass has a tendency to clump at the opening of the hopper just before falling into the screw. Clumps do not mix well with the plastic and can result in clumps of glass imbedded in the plastic strands. During the compounding process, clumps of glass, carbon, and decomposed plastic build up between the screw flights and the vent area. These clumps are deposited in the melted strands, form into pellets, and if undetected may eventually become part of a part of a plastic part. The clumps will partially restrict the opening in the strand die which decreases the diameter of the finished pellets. Clumps of glass also build up and clog the breaker plate and screen pack. The intensive shearing action of the screw can also break the individual fibers into shorter lengths. Carbon fibers also suffer from fracture. Stainless steel and Kevlar fibers tend to fold. The pressure at the die head, which influences the intensity of the mixing between the screw flights, is maintained between 1,500 to 2,000 pounds per square inch. The hopper opening, vent, die head pressure, and die openings must be constantly monitored to assure the quality and consistency of compounded plastic.

Downstream Equipment As the strands leave the extruder die they enter a conveyor system. The conveying system is called the downstream equipment. The downstream equipment must perform many tasks. Down stream equipment maintains the strands in the extruded condition until pelletized and bagged. It must cool, chop into pellets, separate the pellets by size, and load in bags, drums, or boxes. The process completes many function and is similar to a conveyor line. After the plastic and additives are mixed into the extruder they leave the die head in a melted condition. When the melted strands drop from the die, they are transported to a pelletizer, about 24 feet down stream. The conveyer is a continuously moving belt that picks up the extruded material and transports it to a cold water spray; then the pellets are subjected to drying fans. The speed of the conveyor is adjustable to match the speed of the extruding strands as they exit the die head. If the conveyor moves too fast, the strands thin out and may break. If the conveyor moves too slowly, the stands build up into globs at the die head. The most difficult part in monitoring the compounding process is the synchronization of the conveyor speed with the extrudent speed. Surging in the extruder, caused by voids in the melt stream and build up in the vent area, will cause a strand to elongate, thin out, break, bunch up, and thicken. If the strands touch each other prior to cooling, they fuse into a strand that is twice as large as required. Any of these problems can produced plastic pellets of irregular shape and sizes. This directly affects the eventual consistency of the compounded material. This is an especially tricky endeavor since large pellets require a long time to melt and small pellets decompose under the same condition.

Pelletizer After the strands are cooled they are feed into a pelletizer where they are chopped into 1/4" lengths. The pelletizer, illustrated in Figure 4-15, pulls the cooled and hardened strands into a cutter head that chops them into uniform lengths. The pellets then fall onto the first of three vibrating screen trays called classifiers. The first tray has the large holes which allow all he acceptably sized pellets to drop through to the second tray. All oversized pellets, or broken strands remain trapped in the first tray. The second tray allows the fines (particles smaller than 1/4") to fall to the bottom tray while capturing the acceptable pellets. The rejected oversized pellets and fines are returned to the extruder's hopper. At the hopper the rejected materials are added in amounts of less than 4% and compounded a second time. On runs of 500 pounds or less the rejected materials are discarded. A continuing problem in compounding is that some longer pellets turn on their end and drop through the screen holes in the classifiers. Unfortunately, without effective quality control procedures, these over sized pellets are often shipped along with acceptable materials.

Quality Control Samples are drawn from each run roughly midway through production. A sample of 25 pounds is injection molded into a master unit die (MUD mold) to produce tensile, impact, color, and flow test specimens. Approximately a pound of pellets is retained. One third of test specimens are used to measure the material's physical and chemical properties, moisture content, and color retention. The remaining two thirds of specimens and plastic pellets, along with the test results, are reserved into two sample bags. One bag is retained in the compounder's archives and the other is shipped to the customer with the materials. The moisture content of plastic pellet is determined at the end of the process to insure quality control. The compounder depends on the efficiency of the extruder vent and conveyor drying fans for the removal of interior and exterior pellet moisture. Most materials are not dried fully after compounding. Polycarbonate is the lone material that requires further drying. Additives Additives are used in plastic materials to improve its melting and molding properties. Additives are also used to improve the strength, stability, chemical resistance and weathering properties of plastic products. Additives can be divided into two groups of process additives and functional additives. Table 4-1 lists the two groups of additives.

Process Additives Process additives fall into two camps, stabilizers and processing aids. Plastic products cannot be mass-produced without the addition of additives. Without them the heat and the high shear rates that are generated during processing to melt the plastic would also destroy the molecular structure and render it useless. Rigid PVC cannot be processed without stabilizers and lubricants. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and nylon require antioxidants or their molecular structure decomposes rapidly during molding. Process Stabilizers Plastic materials are processed into products by combining plastics with additives. As the plastic material is brought to a melt condition its molecular structure is subjected to compression, shearing, and high temperatures. The high temperatures and intensive mixing of the plastic will break some molecules; it also forces entangled molecules to undergo deformation. A few break. Others lose a side atom. The molecules that lose a side atom, split (chain scission), and cross link, harden into brittle material. A few damaged molecules form into carbon rings which darken the color of the plastic. Others form into small molecules of hydroperoxide or become reactive ready to link with other atoms. These reactive atoms are called "free radicals" and can accelerate the breakdown of other molecules. The breakdown of the plastic during processing is stabilized with additives. Heat stabilizers and antioxidants are used to stop molecular breakdown by neutralizing free radicals. One common property of a heat stabilizer is the capacity to react chemically and neutralize hydrogen chloride. (Since the process which takes place with metal carboxylates and organotin mercaptides is chemically complicated, it is beyond the scope of this text.) The stopping of dehydrochlorination, the removal of a chlorine atom from the PVC molecule, and dehydrogenation, the removal of a hydrogen atom from any plastic molecule, is most often accomplished through the addition of a phenolic antioxidant. The antioxidant serves two purposes, reducing free radical growth and deactivating the formation of hydroperoxides. A more complete explanation of the function of antioxidants is covered later in this chapter. Of all the thermoplastics, PVC is particularly vulnerable to degradation during processing. The processing temperatures for PVC ranges from 300 to 450 degrees F. Without heat stabilizers, PVC begins to thermally decompose at approximately 200 degree F. The degradation of PVC and other thermoplastics results in changes in color varying from white to yellow, to tan, brown, and even to black. The physical properties are also changed as the plastics become increasingly more brittle. PVC's capacity to break down is caused by the reactive nature of the chlorine atom called dehydrochlorination. A by product of the dehydrochlorination of PVC is the generation of hydrogen chloride which is highly corrosive on process equipment. In other thermoplastics, the hydrogen atom reacts with oxygen leaving the remaining carbon atoms to linked to form graphite particles.

Processing Aids Lubricants All lubricant additives results in a decrease in friction. Thus lubricants are added in small amount in solid, powder or liquid form to all plastic materials. Lubricants aid processing by reducing the material's viscosity. They also assist in the formation of smooth high gloss appearance on the molded part. The concentration of lubricants range between 0.5% and 1%, depending on the processing equipment and the appearance requirements of the final article. Lubricants are essential due to the high thermal stress caused by the shearing action which can lead to degradation, discoloration, and carbonization of the plastics. Lubricants reduce the internal and external friction of the plastics melt as it passes through the narrow slots, channels, and dies in the process equipment. The addition of lubricants allows for greater productivity because it reduces the damaging effects of increased shear rates and melt temperatures. Lubricants decrease internal and external friction between molecules and between the plastics and process equipment. Lubricants are absorbed between molecules in a plastic and promotes the melting process by allowing the molecules to slip easily. In this way lubricants act as anti static agents by reducing the build up of charged electrical particles on the plastic's surface. Lubricants also create a "cushioning" effect between the molecules. When an external force strikes the plastic the molecules can more easily move without breaking. Lubricants also retain color by capturing the color additive between molecules. Lubricants are generally organic compounds and fall into four categories: stearates, fatty acids, hydrocarbon waxes, and low molecular weight polyethylene. The effectiveness of any lubricants is its ability to be dispersed and absorbed into the molecular structure of the plastic. The rate of absorption is governed by the solubility of the lubricant. The solubility of a lubricant depends on the similarity of the polarity of the structure of the lubricant's and the plastic's molecules. Table 4-2 list the solubility parameter for selected plastics and solvents. If the solubility of the plastic and lubricant are the same (or within a fraction of the same number), then the plastic will absorb the lubricant. The compatibility of the lubricant with the plastics is of paramount importance. Insufficient lubrication causes degradation and higher melt viscosity because friction between molecules and between the plastic and process equipment, increases. Too much lubrication causes too much slippage with lower outputs of plastic material. Mold Release Agents Internal lubricants in a plastic melt rise to the surface of the molded part and keep the plastic product from sticking to the mold. The mold release agents can be externally applied by aerosol can. Mold release agents are required in high pressure injection molding, blow molding and compression molding processes. In the injection molding process, plastic is forced into the mold with pressures ranging from 5,000 to 40,000 PSI. Under pressure, the plastic cools and shrinks around the cores and wall of the mold. This exert tremendous pressure locking the plastic part on the

mold surface. A release agent is required. The aerosol release agents forms a thin film on the surface of the mold that allows the plastic part to slip off. Internal mold release agents are mixed into the plastic and migrate to the surface of the plastic. They produce the same effect as the aerosol release agents. Silicone is the most popular release agent for both internal and external applications. If the plastic part is to be painted or labeled, then silicone must be removed from the surface. Silicone release agents are routinely removed from the surface of blow molded polyethylene bottles by passing the bottle over a gas flame. The flame burns off the silicone; then the label can stick to the plastic. Release agents, called slipping agents, are used in the production of films. Other agents are added to plastic films in the form of anti slip and anti blocking agents to reduce the slippery nature of plastic film.

Nucleating Agents Nucleating agents are added to plastic materials to control the growth of crystal structures. Chapter 2 discussed the crystalline and amorphous molecular structures of plastics. Crystalline structures are ordered in arrangements growing out from a central nucleus. Crystals are formed outward from the nucleus with the molecules folding back on themselves and stacking to form into spheres. Figure 4-16 illustrates how plastics molecules grown from a nucleus to form crystal spheres. Amorphous structures are random, loose molecular arrangements that form between crystals. These two structures play dominant roles in determining a plastic's physical properties. Plastic that is allow to cool slowly at room temperature without external pressure will form into large crystals called spherulites. The properties of the plastic product will depend in part on the number, size, and quality of this spherulitic growth. The crystals initiate growth from a nucleus can start in three ways: A nucleus may begin with a faster cooling foreign substances such as catalyst residues, unmelted portion of the plastic, degraded polymer, or other impurities. A nucleus begins in a molded plastic at the cold mold wall. The third way is to initiate crystal growth by adding foreign substances to the plastic call nucleating agents. Nucleating agents are inorganic additives such as talc, silica, kaolin; or organic compounds such as salts or color pigments, and in some cases certain copolymers such as ethylene/acrylic esters. These agents, are incorporated in powder mixtures, or suspended in solution, in the form of master batches that are uniformly dispersed in quantities that rarely rise above 0.1%. Added in the proper quantities and dispersed uniformly throughout the plastics, these agents generate fine grained spherulatic crystals with superior properties and faster production rates. Crystalline structures are much stronger and stable than amorphous structures. When stability of a plastic product is desired, it is important that the crystal patterns are uniform, small, and equally dispersed throughout the material. Figure 4-17 illustrates a plastics materials with course crystal pattern and the same plastic with a nucleated fine crystal growth. Coarse grains and larger crystal structures produce plastics that are brittle and less transparent than the same plastic with a finer crystal pattern. A finer crystal pattern generally produces a plastic part with greater stiffness, increased transparency, better surface gloss resistance to abrasions and greater tensile strength. The uniformity of crystal also produces a more uniform shrink rate in the plastic product which reduces warping and holes in the center of plastic moldings. A finer grain structure reduces the number of cycles a plastic must be process thus reducing the cost per item. Crystal grain form above the melt temperature of plastic. Manufactures seek to mold products at temperatures that form uniform and fine crystalline structures. Table 4-2 compares the temperatures at which crystal growth takes place with the melt temperatures of selected plastic materials. Blowing Agents A blowing agent is an organic or inorganic substance that acts either chemically or physically to produce a foamed plastic. The blowing agents reduce the amount of plastic required to produce a part, thus reducing weight and also reducing cost. Small qualities of blow agents are added to improve stiffness, insulation, remove sink marks, and imparts the ability to produce thicker wall section. The amount of blowing agent will determine the porousity of the plastic. Products that are possible because of blowing agents are simulate leather, cushioned vinyl flooring, packaging, sponges, coffee cups, and bedding. Blowing agents are normally introduced into the plastic prior to processing. Blowing agents chemically react to form gas cells or they expand physically forming the foamed structure. Chemical blowing agents decompose at high temperatures to produce a gas that expands the plastics material. Physical blowing agents expand with heat to force a cellular structure. The most common blowing agents are hydrochlorofluorocarbons, methylene chloride, methyl chloroform, n-pentane, isopetane, acetone, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water. Chlorofluorocarbons were formly used but have been phased out because of their effect of the earth ozone cover. Functional Additives Functional additives enhance environmental properties, increase the shelf life of plastic products. Many plastics breakdown when they are exposed to outdoor weather. Polypropylene and low density polyethylene weather poorly; within a few months of outdoor exposure they become brittle and discolored. Acrylic weathers the best but rapidly develops stress cracks if exposed to moisture. Functional additives can be divided into the two categories of stabilizing and modifying. Stabilizing additives retard the breakdown of the plastic molecule due to reaction to oxygen, light rays and attack from active metals. Another stabilizer, flame retarding agents, stop ignition or the spread of combustion. Modifiers add color, flexibility, increase impact properties, increase strength and bulk. Other modifiers act as anti static and whitening agents. Biocide modifiers resist the biological corrosions of microorganisms.

Stabilizing Additives

Antioxidants All plastics materials experience oxidation during thermal processing or from exposure to ultraviolet lights. During the process of oxidation, oxygen atoms react and remove hydrogen atoms on the plastic's molecule. The removal of the hydrogen cause the molecular chain to break and form bonds of carbon to carbon atoms. The carbon bond without the hydrogen atom becomes an active linkage site called a free radical. The free radical seeks to link in a weak double bond with another carbon or cross links with another free radical on an adjacent molecule. The double bond or cross link weaken the plastic materials and make it brittle. The carbon to carbon bonding creates dark graphite particles which produce a darkening and discoloration of the plastics. Antioxidants are chemicals, normally in a powder, that are added to plastic materials (in fractions of less than one percent) to retard these reaction with oxygen. The molecular structure coupled with chemical properties, determine the difference in oxidation rates. The oxidation of plastics is sometimes referred to as aging. Hydrogen's reaction with the oxygen often forms a white chalky surface on the plastic. A good example of this oxidation process at work can be observed in most weathered vinyl car top and plastic paints as white powders form; discoloration occurs. Vinyl car tops, colored paints, and plastic coated cables are particularly suitable to the oxidative process. The effects of oxidation include discoloration, especially yellowing, hardening, cracking, loss of surface gloss and a loss of transparency. The physical assets of any polymer will be dramatically reduced. While polyacrylonitrile and acrylic are highly resistance to oxidation, polyethylene and PVC are not. Antioxidants are used in the highest quantities in ABS, polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyethylene. Light Stabilizers Light stabilizers, some times called ultraviolet light absorbers, act to block the degradation of the molecule. Ultraviolet (UV) light acts similar to oxidation by attacking the surface molecules which damages both the visual and physical properties of the material. Light stabilizers interfere with this degradation. If the plastic product is colored darker than any form of black, such as carbon black, or black dye, black paint, the darker color acts as a UV absorber. However, the lighter color and transparent plastics uses a chemical called benzophenones as a general purpose absorber. This molecule degradation is slow and on a extremely small scale taking place in one in every 100 to 100,000 molecules, depending on the type of plastic. This allows the plastics part to remain in use, exposed to ultraviolet light for a long time without visible damage. The use of corrugated polyester panels on green house or patio roofs are often compounded with acrylic monomer because it is naturally resistant to damage by ultraviolet light. The acrylic monomer retards the damage of UV light and extends the life of the green house polyester panels by more than five years. The concentration of light absorbers in any formulation are normally in the range of 1/4 to 1 percent. Polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC, ABS, polyesters, and polyurethane are particularly susceptible to this kind of damage. Metal Deactivators In the presence of metals such as copper, iron, cobalt, manganese, cerium, and vanadium, the thermooxidative degradation of sensitive plastics, especially polyethylene, is accelerated. The presence of these metals initiates the generation of free radicals within the plastic molecule and causes molecular chain break down. Thus, the plastic looses it flexibility and becomes brittle. This is especially apparent in the polyethylene and PVC insulation of copper wire. Metal deactivators act to block the accelerated oxidative properties of these metals by chemically forming inactive structure. Flame Retarding Agents Most thermoplastics are highly flammable while thermoset plastic are inherently flame retarding. Flame retarding agents, either organic or inorganic, are used to lower the flammability of all types of plastics. Flame retarding agents work in four basic ways: (1) they influence the combustion of the plastics by reacting with them, (2) they provide insulating properties, (3) they coat the product and exclude oxygen from supporting the combustion, and (4) they provide an outside cooling reaction. The most common flame retardants are boron, nitrogen, halogens, antimony and phosphorus. Many flame retarding agents are neutralized by process temperatures, ultraviolet light, and the present of oxidative agents. To meet fire retarding requirements, most flame-retarding thermoplastics have two or more types of flame retarding agents. The addition these chemicals reduces the probability of plastic burning in first phase of a fire. The flame retarding ability of thermoplastics depends on the size and type of fire. But even plastics that contain the most effective flame retarding agents will not resist combustion in a strong fire. Modifiers Modifiers improve the color, flexibility, impact, strength, resistance to biological attack, add whiteness, increase bulk and retard the buildup of static electricity of plastic products. One of the major advantages of plastics over metals and ceramics is their ability to accept various types of ingredients to change color, improve flexibility, absorb impact, increase surface hardness, enhance rigidity, and resist attack by biological agents. Properties of the polystyrene can be greatly improved with the addition of powdered rubber blended into the molecular structure. The ability to color different plastics the same color allows for the combining of different materials into one monochromatic product. Plastics are now replacing aluminum for the

internal parts of copier and printers. Modifiers can be divided into seven distinct categories: colorants, plasticizer, impact modifiers, fillers, reinforcements, anti static agents, whitening agents, and biocides. Colorants The choice of a colorant depends on its compatibility and solubility in the plastic. The final product color must meet requirements of brilliance, light, fastness (the ability to maintain color), opacity or transparency. Colorants must be stable at molding temperatures and with exposure to light, moisture and oxygen. The color changes that result from the addition of colorants are based on the absorption or reflection of light. Colorants that absorb most light wavelengths are darker than the colors that scatter or reflect light wavelength. Normally, plastics are supplied precolored but specialty plastics must be custom compounded. Colorants are classified as either pigments or dyes. Pigments are opaque colors, supplied in powder form, in liquid mixed with a plasticizer, or as color concentrates mixed with a base plastic materials. The pigments must have the ability to be dispersed throughout the plastic. Generally the powder pigment is mixed by tumbling with plastic pellets in large drums. The pigment aggregates tend to bunch together so mixing time and weight are important. Dispersion is the key to successful coloring: dispersion it self depends on the particles size of the pigment and the molecular weight of the plastic. The powder in aggregates is thoroughly mixed during the melt processing of the plastics during compounding. Dyes devolve into the plastic mixing between molecules. All dyes are transparent, only absorb light, and do not scatter it. Dyes dissolve easily in the plastic during processing. When transparency is desired, dyes are used. Dyes are not as stable as pigments, they tend to break down during processing, turning the plastic toward yellow or brown. Dyes are also subject to color migration which can cause discoloration of clothes, skin, table linens or cause allergic reaction.

Plasticizers It is impossible to manufacture plastic sheets, film, tubing and flexible PVC without the additions of plasticizers. Plasticizers are a form of internal lubricant added to plastics to improve flexibility, resiliency, and melt flow. There are 500 different kinds and most are liquid. Plasticizers are mix-inbetween molecules. The space required for the plasticizer forces the molecules to move farther apart which reduces the strength of the Van der Waal's forces. The greater distance between chains, plus the lubricating action of the plasticizer, allows the chains to move more freely, reducing chain entanglement, lowering the melt temperature and significantly reducing physical properties. The more plasticizers that are added to plastics, the more flexibility is achieved. Some PVC plastisols are composed of 50 to 60% plasticizers, PVC accounts for 80% of all plasticizer consumption with cellulose, ABS, polystyrene also using a large share. One side effect of lower cost plasticizers in PVC is their thermal instability. For example, PVC car tops, shower curtains, and upholstery, lose their flexibility as the plasticizer evaporates molecules. An inexpensive shower curtain will initially have a pungent odor when first removed from the packaging. The odor is trapped by the packaging as the plasticizer evaporates. The PVC steering wheel will loose plasticizers when the car is left closed in the hot sun. The build-up of plasticizer on the surface of the wheel produce an oily feel. As the plasticizer evaporates from car seat upholstery, it builds up on the inside of car windows and on the under side car ceiling and creates brown oily film. Car tops and garden hoses become brittle and crack when they lose their plasticizer. The use of low cost plasticizers in PVC shower curtains attract bacteria growth around the bottom of the curtain as the fungi feeds on the plasticizer. There are several higher cost plasticizer that have excellent resistance to migration and bacteria. A biocide is often added with low cost plasticizer to reduce the attack of fungi. However, these significantly increase the cost of the PVC product.

Impact Modifiers Many plastics materials are brittle and must be modified to improve their ability to absorb shock. The notched impact strength of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, and polypropylene are very low at room temperature and require impact modifier in most applications. Impact resistance can be significantly improved by compounding or polymerizing impact absorbing rubbers, plasticizers, or higher impact plastics. There are three ways to modify brittle plastics with impact modifiers. The first is compounding additives into a plastic material, the second and third are variants of polymerization techniques. The most economical method to improve the ability of a plastic to withstand a impact shock is to compound (in a dry blend or in the melt condition) a powder rubber or plasticizers. The plastic, normally PVC of polystyrene compounded with rubber, will absorb the impact first in the brittle molecule, and then transfer the energy, to the rubber particle. The compounded rubber acts similar to automotive shock absorbers. PVC is usually produced with an impact modifier. Impact resistance PVC has found wide application in the building trades as rain gutters, door frames, corrugated sheets, patio furniture, garden hoses. Modified PVC is used widely in the packaging industry for bottles of oil, disposable cups, blister and skin packaging. In the electrical industry it's used for insulating pipes and cable conduits. Polystyrene plastic is often compounded with a rubber powder and sold as an impact resistance grade in the manufacture of children's toys and model kits. The second method is to polymerize two monomers; one a brittle plastic and the other an impact resistant plastic. The resulting plastic, a copolymer, has both the brittle and impact properties. The copolymerization technique produces a plastic with 15 to 25% more impact component than the technique of compounding rubber power into the plastic. In copolymerization of ABS plastic, styrene is polymerized with acrylonitrile and then modified with the rubber polybutadiene. The versatility of ABS is widely know. It ease of manufacture, excellent chemical resistance, rigidity,

high impact resistance, color retention, and outstanding surface properties make this plastic the ideal material for computer and electronic housing, ABS pipe, and a wide range of consumer product including refrigerator liners, television housings, remote controllers, kitchen appliance housings, and children toys. The third and most recent method, is to graft an impact resistant plastic onto the molecular structure of a brittle plastic. This form of grafting is similar to grafting a different growth twig onto a tree stem. The grafting allows brittle PVC plastic to be formed into tough and flexible window frames. Polypropylene with grafted ethylene propylene rubber (EPD) has proved especially useful as shoe heels, flexible heating tubes and hoses, cable insulation, and such automotive products as bumper covering, side panels, steering wheel housing, dashboards, consoles, handles and wheel linings.

Fillers Fillers are low cost additives which replace the higher cost plastic. Fillers also provide abrasive resistance on the surface of the plastic. Most fillers are minerals, rock or ores that have been ground to obtain a suitable particle size. The most important fillers are the calcium carbonates, dolomite, silicates, talc, kaolin, mica, silica (sand), carbon black, and graphite. A filler usually comprises between 10% and 60% of the weight of the filled plastic. Fillers are most often used in the thermoset plastic of phenolic, urea and melamine; however, filled thermoplastics are now widely available. The two basic types of fillers are inert and active. The use of inert fillers, sometime called extenders, reduces cost by decreasing the amount of plastics used. Extenders are sometimes referred to as bulk fillers and normally occur in powder form walnut shells, sawdust, wood pulp, jute, or mica. Silica is added in quantities of up to 60% in PVC to form the various grades of hard and rigid floor tile. Natural calcium carbonate in the form of chalk is added to PVC plastisols to improve both coating and reduce dripping. The chalk additionally improves adhesion and bond strength on the substrate. Active fillers produce improvements in physical or mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, thermal stability, chemical resistance, and appearance. Glass fibers and spheres, cotton fabric, and paper are often used as reinforcement to improve the stability of plastic products. Mineral powders, metal oxides, powdered metals, graphite, and silica are used to increase a plastic hardness and chemical resistance. Thermal stability can be improved with the addition of ceramic oxide, silica, and diatomaceous earth. The appearance of a plastic can be improved with the addition of carbon black, powdered metals, phosphorescent minerals and woven fabrics. Glass micro spheres were introduced in the mid 1960's as a filler for plastics. Glass spheres lower the melt viscosity of the system and improve fiber distribution and mold flow. The glass spheres also improve process ability and lessen rejects of injection molded parts by controlling shrinkage and warpage. They also reduce the strain on process equipment.

Reinforcements Reinforcements are added to plastics to increase the strength and stability of plastic materials. Reforcements also increase heat deflection temperature, reduce mold shrinkage, and provide longer product stability by reducing creep and cold flow. Reinforcements for plastic materials generally are categorized as wither short or long fibers. This section focuses solely on short fiber reinforcements used in filled thermoplastics. (Long fiber reinforcements will be cover later in the book under the chapter on composites.) The two most important reinforcements for thermoplastic materials are glass and carbon fibers. Glass and carbon fibers are normally 1/4" in length and dry mixed into the thermoplastic pellets prior to compounding. The intense shearing and mixing action of the compounder normally reduces the length of the fiber to 1/16 of an inch. Carbon fibers are excellent conductors of electricity and are often used to reinforce materials when computer printers and copy machine require electrostatic dissipation. Paper which moves across the surface of plastic builds up static electricity. As discussed earlier under compounding process carbon fibers act to ground the static before it damages the electronic circuits. The pellets produced during compounding process are then sold in a ready to process form. Glass exhibits high tensile strength, good chemical resistance and heat resistance. The reinforcing ability of glass fibers is significant, the addition of 30% glass by weight generally result in doubling the tensile strength, tripling the modulus of elasticity and reducing the thermal expansion and shrinkage rates by a third. The ability of the glass fiber to reinforce the plastic depends upon the ability of the plastic component to coat to the surface of the glass fiber. This coating ability is called "wet-out." The glass surface possesses no affinity for sticking to the plastic and requires the addition of a coupling agent. The coupling agent generally used consist of an inorganic component which reacts with the glass surface and an organic component that reacts with the plastic. The glass or carbon reinforced thermoplastics combine the excellent properties of the plastic with the high strength of the reinforcing fiber to provide the plastic product with properties that often approach the level of metals.

Anti Static Agents Some plastics are good insulators, their low surface conductivity does not allow for the discharge of electricity; static electricity accumulates on their surface. Static electricity occurs on the surface of plastics from vigorous frictional contact, especially in dry environments. If the humidity is higher than 65%, problems with static electricity build up are zero. However, if the product is produced in a plastic that is particularly susceptible to static electricity build up, and the humidity is below 20%, then anti static agents must be incorporated into the plastic. Plastics which are particularly

susceptible to the accumulation of static electricity are polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon, polyesters, urethanes, cellulose, acrylic, and acrylonitrile. The build up of static electricity can provide serious and dangerous situation. Dust and dirt particles can build-up on the surface contaminating the part or interfering with sound reproduction of recording devices. Static buildup on people passing over synthetic fiber carpeting or plastic floor covering will provide a shock as the charge flows off to a door handle or other conductive surface. Films and sheet plastic cling together and cause production delays. Powders being transported in vacuum feed systems can lump together causing a blockage of the system. Sparks generation from a large static charge can ignite dust or solvent air mixtures. Anti-static agents (either internally mixed into the plastic or applied external to the plastics) can effectively reduce the buildup of charges on the surface of plastic materials by increasing surface conductivity.

Whitening Agents Most plastics absorb light in the blue spectrum range of natural light which results in plastics having a natural yellow appearance. The natural form of PVC, polystyrene, and polycarbonate exhibit a distinct yellowish cast. Additionally, polycarbonate, polyurethane, and polypropylene are processed at temperatures in the range of 450 degrees F. Yellowing may occur under these high temperatures. Fluorescent whitening agents sometimes called brighteners or bluing agents, are added to plastics to reduce the yellow cast by increasing the reflected blue light. The whitening agents act to convert longer wavelength ultraviolet light to a blue or violet light as part of the total spectrum. The additions of the whitening agents allow for the production of plastic products in brilliant whites, blacks, and with brilliant colors. The plastic material with the added whiteners will appear whiter, brighter, and more brilliant. Whitening agents are normally dry-blended in a concentrate or master blend with plasticizers or chalk added to the plastics pellets during manufacturing. Whiteners are added in amount from 100 to 500 parts per million. The most important application are in plastics that a susceptible to breakdown by UV light. These are the thermoplastic PVC, polystyrene and its copolymers, polyurethane, polycarbonate, polypropylene, and polyethylene. These plastics are manufactured in films, coatings, plastisols, imitation leathers and injection molded products.

Biocides Biocides, sometimes called biostablizers, fungicides, bactericides, and microbiocides, are added to plastics materials to resist the biological corrosions of the plasticizer additive. Plastic materials are resistant to biological attack from microorganisms; however, the many plasticizers used in PVC are highly susceptible to attack. The attack can be from fungi, bacteria, or other microorganisms which use the plasticizer as a nutrient. The plasticizers known to be the most susceptible are adipates, azeleates, sebacates, polyesters, epoxidized oils, and lubricants. Biocides are added to the plastic in small amounts ranging from 0.1% to 5%. Biocides are toxic chemicals, however, the amount used is so small that it does not normally represent a toxic danger. However, biocides should not be used when the plastic product is to be in permanent contact with human skin, drinking water, or food. The same is true for plastics that are to be used in articles used by children or infants. The result of the biological attack affects appearance with pink staining, loss of mechanical and electrical properties, and the development of mildew and odor. Plasticized PVC products most often requiring protection include: shower curtains, bath mats, water beds, awnings, tents, lawn furniture, marine upholstery, auto seat covers, ground cloths, wall covering, floor coverings, coated fabrics, and electrical insulation. These biological attacks are accelerated in hot and humid environments with temperatures of 80 to 100 degrees F and relative humidity between 63% to 99%. Most plasticized PVC shower curtains exist in this type of environment and exhibit rapid growth of mildew and odor.

Summary The importance of compounding additives in the successful production of quality products cannot be overstated. Plastic materials would not be important in industry without their incorporation of additives. The compounding process is a first, and crucial, step prior to the production of any quality plastic part.