Overview of Embryonic Development Cell division results to dissimilar cells Nuclear transfer of division results in equivalent genome *any

variation in the genome is due to abnormalities Cells re-specialize during regeneration Cell signalling holds responsibility of cellular specialization Lice Cycle of a Cell (in my own words!) G1 stage growth 1 o The cell readies itself for cell division, it produces essential protein s and stores nutrients that would be needed to catalyse and make the process pos sible G1 / S Checkpoint o This checks if all the materials are already present and if the organell es are already well developed. This also ensures that all the hormones are alrea dy abundant S Stage-DNA SYNTHESIS- DNA Replication stage o The cell replicates its genetic material and the organelles of the cell G2 Phase o The cell assures that everything was replicated so that each daughter ce ll formed would have the same set of organelles and same number and kind of chro mosomes o In case there is a deficiency in the number of organelles, it can replic ate during G1 M Phase Mitotic phase o This is induced by MPF or maturation Promoting Factors o The cell would undergo mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase ) G0 stage o Cells that have specialized into undividing cells would be in the G0 pha se which would deprive them of being able to replicate (Nerve, Muscle, RBC) The INTERPHASE is composed of the first three stages (G1, S, G2) For Embryonic development G1 and S would take about ten hours G2 would take 4 hours M would take 30 minutes !!! please do remember that the M phase happen in a very short time interval rel ative to the interphase stage!!! There are 3 major types of cells according to their ability to divide: Cells that dont divide (Nerve, Muscle, RBC) Cells that divide only in the presence of stimulus (liver cells, lymphocytes) Cells that are involved in high level of cell division (spermatogonia, haemotopo etic cells, epithelial cells The cytoplasm is the one responsible for the movement of the cell from one stage to another, this is through MPFs or Maturation Promoting Factor. Specifically in the cystoplasm, CDKs or the cyclin-dependent kinases are at work. For G1 to go to S we need the presence of D-cdk4 For S to go to G2 we need the presence of E-cdk2 For G2 to go to M we need the presence of A-cdk2 For M to go back to G1 we need the presence of B-cdk2 Focusing on the M Phase The M (Mitosis) phase is composed of 4 main stages PMAT (Prophase, Metap hase, Anaphase, Telophase), the result of this process is two daughter cells wit h a diploid number of chromosomes: o Prophase Condesation of the nucleus happens and the DNA (Deoxy-ribonucleic Acid) becomes

HIGHLY coiled From being a chromatin, the uncondensed form of DNA, it is packed as chromosome in order to protect the blueprint when the nuclear envelope disintegrates Each halve of the chromosome is called the chromatid The nuclear envelope disintegrates o Metaphase Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes through their kinetochores The chromosomes line up the middle of the cell due to equal tension of the spind le fibers that are attached to the centrosome (the centrosome contains the centr ioles) The spindle fibers are made up of microtubules and is composed of alpha and beta tubulin A stop signal called MAD2 inhibits the cell of going to anaphase unless all the kinetochores are attached to a microtubule. This is done to assure that each cel l gets its own replicate of the chromosome When everything seems of the stop signal is inhibited and APC (Anaphase promotin g complex) is activated to proceed to the next stage. o Anaphase The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the microtubules The microtubules are attached to the kinetochores but the others interact with t he microtubule of the opposite pair by pushing each other and thus, pulling the sister chromatids apart Cohesin, a protein, and securin are responsible of holding the two sister chroma tids together. Kinesin, a motor protein, is responsible for the shortening of the fibers, as k inesin moves through the fibers the fiber slowly disintegrates and thus shortens o Telophase The cleavage furrow is evident and cytokinesis happens Random Facts In one cell cycle only 1 duplication may occur The DNA is placed inside the nucleus to protect it from mutagens When the nuclear envelope disintegrates the DNA is already packed into chromosom es so it remains protected. APAPTOSIS is the process by which the cell carries out suicide when abnormal thi s is to avoid greater damage to the organism Histone+DNA=Chromosome However it could also be MEIOSIS in cases of cells undergoing gametogenesis or t he formation of gametes. In meiosis there are typically 8 stages (Prophase1, Met aphase1, Anaphase1, Telophase1, Prophase2, Metaphase2, Anaphase2, and Telophase2 ), the result of this process are four new daughter cells each with a haploid nu mber of chromosomes. This is also divided in to two maturational division the re ductional and equational: Prophase1 o Leptotene Chromosomes are still threadlike and beginning to coil o Zygotene Homologous chromosomes stay side by side Partial Synapsis (name for the event) occurs and the synaptinemal complex appear s (point of contact) o Pachytene Synapsis is completed Two aligned chromosomal pairs are called bivalent Thickening of the chromosomes due to coiling o Diplotene Overlapping occurs called crossing-over Chiasmata is the point of overlapping Chiasmata remain but the synaptinemal complex spits o Diakinesis Terminalization occurs or the movement of the chiamata to the end of the chromos

omes Nucleolus disintegrates Metaphase1 o The homologous chromosomes (one from maternal, the other from paternal) line up at the mitotic plate o Since we dont know what chromosome (the paternal or maternal) is proximal to a specific o pole, genetic variation occurs, and a 23 chromosomes that would be 223 Anaphase1 o This stage is the one responsible for the haploid (n) daughter cell o Unlike in Anaphase, homologous pairs are the one which separates Telophase1 +PMAT same in mitosis SPERMATOGENESIS The process by which a single primordial germ cell results in four matur e spermatozoa, it normally has three phases but some stay with only 1 (1) Mitotic Multiplication (2) Meiosis (3) Spermiogenesis PRIMORDIAL GERM CELL SPERMATOGONIA o Type A Stem Cell Population- long term reserve cell o Type B Committed to leave the mitotic cycle and become spermatids After the final round of DNA replication, these will be called preleptotene sper matocytes. PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE 1ST meiotic division (2) SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTE 2nd meiotic division (4) SPERMATIDS Spermiogenesis or spermatid metamorphosis a. Cytoplasm streams away from the nucleus, which would be the head b. Golgi complex forms acrosomal granules which merge to form the acrosome c. Chromatin is compacted and fluids are lost d. Centrioles serve as anchorage for the developing flagellum e. Mitochondria begins to form a spiral investment around the proximal pa rt of the flagellum f. The remaining of the cytoplasm begins to be aggregated into a remnant or residual body which is slacked off and phagocytized by the Sertoli cells SPERMATOZOA !!!Blood-testis barrier is necessary to prevent the bodys immune system from dest roying the maturing sperm cells starting from the secondary spermatocytes since they are already genetically different because they are haploid!!!

Estrous Cycle (menstrual cycle in humans) Four kinds of ovulation Seasonal Breeders- Depending on the season Polyestrous animals- Regular cycle throughout the year Seasonally Polyestrous- Regular when its their season Monoestrous- once a year