Fundamental Parameters of Antennas

Ranga Rodrigo
June 23, 2010
Lecture notes are fully based on Balanis [1]. Some diagrams and text are directly
from the books.
Contents
1 Polarization 1
2 Input Impedance 6
3 Antenna Effective Length and Effective Areas 11
1 Polarization
Denition 1 (Polarization). Polarization is the curve traced by the end point of
the arrow (vector) representing the instantaneous electric eld. The eld must
be observed along the direction of propagation.
Polarization is classied as linear, circular, or elliptical.
If the vector that describes the electric eld at a point in space as a func-
tion of time is always directed along a line, the eld is said to be linearly
polarized.
In general, the gure that the electric eld traces is an ellipse, and the
eld is said to be elliptically polarized.
1
x
y
z
P
o
l
a
r
o
i
d
E
Polarized
light
Polarization Types
Linear polarization and circular polarization are special cases of elliptic
polarization.
Polarization can be clockwise (CW, right-hand polarization), or counter
clockwise (CCW, left-hand polarization).
2
Linear, Circular and Elliptic Polarization
The instantaneous electric eld of a plane wave, traveling in the negative
z direction, can be written as
E(z; t ) = a
x
E
x
(z; t ) + a
y
E
y
(z; t ).
By considering the complex counterpart of these instantaneous compo-
nents, we can write
E
x
(z; t ) =E
xo
cos(t +kz +
x
),
E
y
(z; t ) =E
yo
cos(t +kz +
y
).
where E
xo
andE
yo
are the maximummagnitudes of the x- and y-components.
By dening =
y

x
, we can state these as
E
x
(z; t ) =E
xo
cos(t +kz),
E
y
(z; t ) =E
yo
cos(t +kz +).
Linear polarization
=n, n =1, 2, . . .
x
y
E
xo
E
yo
Circular Polarization
|E

| =|E
y
| E
xo
=E
yo
.
=
_
+
_
2n +
1
2
_
, n =0, 1, 2, . . . CW,

_
2n +
1
2
_
, n =0, 1, 2, . . . CCW.
x
y
E
xo
E
yo
k
Elliptic Polarization
|E

| =|E
y
| E
xo
=E
yo
.
3
=
_
2n +
1
2
_
, n =0, 1, 2, . . . .
OR
=n

2
n =0, 1, 2, . . . .
x
y
E
xo
E
yo
k
Polarization Loss Factor and Efciency
In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna will not be the same
as the polarization of the incoming (incident) wave. This is commonly
stated as polarization mismatch.
The amount of power extracted by the antenna from the incoming signal
will not be maximum because of the polarization loss.
Assuming that the electric eld of the incoming wave can be written as
E
i
=
w
E
i
,
where
w
is the unit vector of the wave. The polarization of the electric
eld of the receiving antenna can be expressed as
E
a
=
a
E
a
,
where
a
is its unit vector.
The polarization loss can be taken into account by introducing a polar-
ization loss factor (PLF). It is dened, based on the polarization of the
antenna in its transmitting mode, as
PLF =

w

a

2
=

cos
p

2
.
where
p
is the angle between the two unit vectors.
The PLF is dimensionless and corresponds to the polarization efciency
e
p
.
4

w

a
p
Example 2. The electric eld of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave given
by
E
i
= a
x
E
0
(x, y)e
j kz
is incident upon a linearly polarized antenna whose electric-eld polarization
is expressed as
E
a
=( a
x
+ a
x
y)E(r, , ).
Find the polarization loss factor (PLF).
PLF for Aperture Antennas
p
p
PLF =

w

a

2
=1 PLF =

w

a

2
=

cos
p

2
PLF =

w

a

2
=0
PLF for Linear Antennas
p
p
PLF =

w

a

2
=1 PLF =

w

a

2
=

cos
p

2
PLF =

w

a

2
=0
5
2 Input Impedance
Denition 3 (Input Impedance). The impedance presented by an antenna at
its terminals or the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the
ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic elds at a point.
Antenna in the Receiving Mode
Z
A
=R
A
+ j X
A
.
Z
A
= antenna impedance at terminals a b ().
R
A
= antenna resistance at terminals a b ().
X
A
= antenna reactance at terminals a b ().
R
A
=R
rad
+R
L
.
R
rad
= radiation resistance of the antenna.
R
L
= loss resistance of the antenna.
Power
The current developed within the loop which is I
g
.
6
The power delivered to the antenna for radiation is given by
P
rad
=
1
2

I
g

2
R
rad
=

V
g

2
2
_
R
rad
(R
rad
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
_
.
The power delivered to the antenna dissipated as heat is
P
rad
=
1
2

I
g

2
R
L
=

V
g

2
2
_
R
L
(R
rad
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
_
.
The power dissipated as heat on the internal resistance R
g
of the genera-
tor,
P
rad
=
1
2

I
g

2
R
g
=

V
g

2
2
_
R
g
(R
rad
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
_
.
The maximumpower delivered to the antenna occurs when we have con-
jugate matching:
R
rad
+R
L
=R
g
,
X
A
=X
g
.
For this case
P
rad
=

V
g

2
2
_
R
rad
4(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
=

V
g

2
8
_
R
rad
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
.
P
L
=

V
g

2
8
_
R
L
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
.
P
g
=

V
g

2
8
_
R
g
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
=

V
g

2
8
_
1
R
rad
+R
L
_
=

V
g

2
8R
g
.
P
g
=P
rad
+P
L
Power supplied by the source during conjugate matching is
P
S
=
1
2
V
g
I

g
=
1
2
V
g
_
V

g
2(R
rad
+R
L
)
_
=
|V
g
|
2
4
_
1
R
rad
+R
L
_
.
7
Of the power that is provided by the generator, half is dissipated as heat in
the internal resistance (R
g
) of the generator and the other half is delivered
to the antenna. This only happens when we have conjugate matching.
Of the power that is delivered to the antenna, part is radiated through
the mechanism provided by the radiation resistance and the other is dis-
sipated as heat which inuences part of the overall efciency of the an-
tenna.
If the antenna is lossless and matched to the transmission line (e
o
= 1),
then half of the total power supplied by the generator is radiated by the
antenna during conjugate matching, and the other half is dissipated as
heat in the generator.
Antenna in the Receiving Mode
The incident wave impinges upon the antenna, and it induces a voltage
V
T
which is analogous to V
g
of the transmitting mode.
The power P
rad
delivered to R
rad
is referred to as scattered (or reradiated)
power.
8
Power delivered to R
T
, R
rad
, and R
L
, are, respectively,
P
T
=
|V
T
|
2
8
_
R
T
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
=
|V
T
|
2
8
_
1
R
rad
+R
L
_
=
|V
T
|
2
8R
T
,
P
rad
=
|V
T
|
2
2
_
R
rad
4(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
=
|V
T
|
2
8
_
R
rad
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
,
P
L
=
|V
T
|
2
8
_
R
L
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
.
The induced (collected or captured) power is
P
C
=
1
2
V
T
I

T
=
1
2
V
T
_
V

T
2(R
rad
+R
L
)
_
=
|V
T
|
2
4
_
1
R
rad
+R
L
_
.
Under conjugate matching of the total power collected or captured half
is delivered to the load R
T
and the other half is scattered or reradiated
through R
rad
and dissipated as heat through R
L
.
If the losses are zero (R
L
=0), then half of the captured power is delivered
to the load and the other half is scattered.
This indicates that in order to deliver half of the power to the load you
must scatter the other half.
The most that canbe deliveredtothe loadis only half of that capturedand
that is only under conjugate matching and lossless transmission line.
Antenna Radiation Efciency
The antenna efciency takes into account the reection, conduction, and
dielectric losses.
The conduction and dielectric losses are difcult to compute and in most
cases they are measured.
Even with measurements, they are difcult to separate and they are usu-
ally lumped together to form the e
cd
efciency.
The resistance R
L
is used to represent the conduction-dielectric losses.
9
Denition 4 (Conduction-Dielectric Efciency). The conduction-dielectric ef-
ciency e
cd
is dened as the ratio of the power delivered to the radiation resis-
tance R
rad
to the power delivered to R
rad
and R
L
.
e
cd
=
R
rad
R
rad
+R
L
.
DC resistance of a rod
R
DC
=
1

l
A
.
RF resistance of a rod
R
RF
=
1

l
2b
, where is the skin depth =
_
2

,
R
RF
=
l
2b
_

o
2
.
Example 5. A resonant half-wavelength dipole is made out of copper (=5.7
10
7
S/m) wire. Determine the conduction-dielectric (radiation) efciency of the
dipole antenna at f = 100MHz if the radius of the wire b is 310
4
, and the
radiation resistance of the/2 dipole is 73 .
10
3 Antenna Effective Length and Effective Areas
An antenna in the receiving mode, whether it is in the form of a wire,
horn, aperture, array, dielectric rod, etc., is used to capture (collect) elec-
tromagnetic waves and to extract power from them.
For each antenna, an equivalent length and a number of equivalent areas
can then be dened.
Vector Effective Length
This is a far-eld quantity that is used to determine the voltage induced
onthe open-circuit terminals of the antenna whena wave impinges upon
it.

e
(, ) = a

l (, ) + a

l (, ).
In transmitting mode
E
a
= a

+ a

=j
kI
in
4r

e
e
j kr
.
In receiving mode
V
oc
=E
i

e
.
11
V
oc
= open circuit voltage at antenna terminals.
E
i
= incident electric eld.
E
a
= far-eld electric eld radiated by the antenna with current I
in
in its
terminals..

e
= vector effective length.
Example 6. The far-zone eld radiated by a small dipole of length l </10 and
with a triangular current distribution id given by
E
a
= a

j
kI
in
8r

e
e
j kr
sin.
Determine the vector effective length of the antenna.
Antenna Equivalent Areas: Effective Area A
e
With each antenna, we canassociate a number of equivalent areas. These
are used to describe the power capturing characteristics of the antenna
when a wave impinges on it.
Effective area (aperture)
A
e
=
P
T
W
i
=
|I
T
|
2
R
T
/2
W
i
.
where
A
e
=effective area (effective aperture) m
2
P
T
=power delivered to the load W
A
e
=power density of incident wave W/m
2
12
MaximumEffective Area A
em
Using the equivalent circuit to compute the current
A
e
=
|V
T
|
2W
i
_
R
T
(R
rad
+R
L
+R
T
)
2
+(X
A
+X
T
)
2
_
.
Under conditions of maximumpower transfer (R
rad
+R
L
=R
T
, X
A
=X
T
)
A
em
=
|V
T
|
8W
i
_
R
T
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
=
|V
T
|
8W
i
_
1
R
rad
+R
L
_
.
All of the power that is intercepted, collected, or captured by an antenna
is not delivered to the load.
Capture area = Effective area + Scattering area + Loss area.
Under conjugate matching, these are
Capture A
c
Effective A
em
Scattering A
s
Loss A
L
|V
T
|
8W
i
_
R
T
+R
rad
+R
L
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
|V
T
|
8W
i
_
R
T
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
|V
T
|
8W
i
_
R
rad
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
|V
T
|
8W
i
_
R
L
(R
rad
+R
L
)
2
_
Aperture Efciency

ap
=
A
em
A
p
=
Maximum effective area
Physical area
.
Example 7. A uniform plane wave is incident upon a very short lossless dipole
(l ). Find the maximum effective area assuming that the radiation resis-
tance of the dipole is R
rad
=80
_
l

_
2
, and the incident eld is linearly polarized
along the axis of the dipole.
13

MaximumDirectivity and MaximumEffective Area

In general , the maximum effective aperture (A
em
) of any antenna is re-
lated to its maximum directivity (D
0
) by
A
em
=

2
4
D
0
.
This assumes that there are no conduction-dielectric losses (radiation ef-
ciency e
cd
=1 ), the antenna is matched to the load (reection efciency
14
e
r
=1), and the polarization loss factor PLF and polarization efciency p
e
are unity.
If the losses are included
A
em
=e
o
_

2
4
_
D
0
|
w

a
|
2
=e
cd
(1||
2
)
_

2
4
_
D
0
|
w

a
|
2
.
Friis Transmission Equation
P
r
P
t
=e
cdt
e
cdr
_
1|
t
|
2
__
1|
r
|
2
_
_

4R
_
2
D
t
(
t
,
t
)D
r
(
r
,
r
)|
t

r
|
2
For reection and polarization-matched antennas aligned for maximumdirec-
tional radiation and reception
P
r
P
t
=
_

4R
_
2
G
0t
G
0r
Radar Range Equation
P
r
P
t
=e
cdt
e
cdr
_
1|
t
|
2
__
1|
r
|
2
_

D
t
(
t
,
t
)D
r
(
r
,
r
)
4
_

4R
1
R
2
_
2
|
w

r
|
2
where = radar cross section or echo area (m
2
),
w
= polarization unit vector
of the scattered waves,
r
= polarization unit vector of the receiving antenna.
For polarization-matched antennas aligned for maximum directional radi-
ation and reception
P
r
P
t
=
G
0t
G0r
4
_

4R
1
R
2
_
2
15
Antenna Temperature
Read on your own, please.
References
[1] Constantine A. Balanis. Antenna Throry: Analysis and Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2nd edition, 1997.
[2] John D. Kraus, Ronaled J. Marhefka, and Ahmad S. Khan. Antennas for All Applications. Tata-McGraw-Hill, 3rd edition, 2006.
16