TAM 224/CEE 210 91

9. Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness

Overview
The objective here is twofold: (a) to learn how to conduct and interpret instrumented impact tests for
characterizing the material behavior of both polymeric and metallic materials under impact conditions at various
temperatures, and (b) to learn how to conduct and interpret a plane-strain fracture-toughness test on a high-
strength metal.
These two important topics in modern engineering design are fairly distinct. Descriptions of the two topics
are divided below into subsections 9AImpact Testing and 9BFracture Toughness.
Impact Testing
9A.1. Objective
The purpose of impact testing is to determine the
nature and extent of material deformation under rapid
loading conditions, as well as the maximum forces
and energy absorbed during impact. In this lab, the
effect of temperature on material response is also
studied.
9A.2. Background
Impact testing is performed for two reasons. First,
impact testing is used to compare the dynamic
response of several materials or batches. The results
of impact tests are used to compare products manu-
factured by different processing routes or as a quality-
control parameter for a given process. Second, impact
testing is performed to simulate the end-use
conditions of a material or product so it can be
manufactured to survive impact associated with its
intended use.
Until recently, impact testing has been performed
without the aid of sophisticated instrumentation. In
the standard (uninstrumented) Charpy or Izod test,
for example, the only variable measured is the total
energy required to break a notched sample in
bending. A heavy pendulum of a certain mass m is
raised through a height h
0
and released, striking and
breaking the specimen at the bottom of its swing. The
pendulum then attains a final height h
f
after impact.
The absorbed energy
tot
of the specimen, which is
assumed to be equal to the loss of potential energy
mg h h
f
( )
0
of the pendulum, is then read directly
from a calibrated scale (from zero to 358 J (264 ftlb))
on the machine. No information about magnitude of
load or time of contact is obtained in an uninstru-
mented test.
Instrumented impact testing refers to a newer
method now commonly used to determine the load-
vs.-deformation response of materials under multi-
axial high-speed deformation. A strain-gaged, hard-
ened load cell called a tup is attached to a falling
weight and contacts the specimen throughout the
loading process (Fig. 1). Detailed information about
the specimens elastic stiffness, deflection, maximum
load, absorbed energy, incipient damage and load at
yield or failure is available after the impact event.
An estimate of a transition temperature, if it exists,
is sought for each of the materials tested. In polymers,
this temperature is called the glass-transition tempera-
ture T
g
(below which the material is glasslike and
above which it is rubbery), and in metals, it is called
the brittle-to-ductile transition (BDT) temperature
T
BDT
.

Fig. 1. Instrumented plate-impact test on a polymer.
92 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
9A.3. Apparatus
An instrumented drop-tower arrangement (Fig. 2)
is used to test two types of samplea plate-
penetration specimen for polymers (Fig. 3), and a
Charpy V-notch specimen for metals (Fig. 4).
A Dynatup model 8210 drop-weight impact
machine is used for the plate-penetration tests. The
crosshead weight W and height H are variable. The
crosshead is equipped with a 16 kN capacity instru-
mented plastic-penetration tup. Impact specimens
(Fig. 3) are supported by a pneumatic clamping fixture
with a 76 mm (3-in.) diameter cavity for ASTM D-3763
penetration testing. Crosshead velocity V is measured
just before impact by a small optical trigger near the
sample fixture.
Impact tests are configured so that the falling tup
completely penetrates the specimen, relinquishing less
than a third of its energy to the fracture of the test
specimen. The tup experiences only a moderate
change in velocity during the test, and consequently
the strain rate is nearly constant during the loading.
The tup is instrumented with semiconductor
strain gages that measure the compressive tup strain
continuously throughout the impact with the speci-
men; the strain record is then converted by the data-
acquisition system into a plot of impact load P as a
continuous function of time t. The tup is also fitted
with a shear-stress shield so that frictional loads are
not included in the data.
For impact testing of metals, a Dynatup model
8250 impact tester, capable of testing either Charpy or
Izod specimens, is used to test Charpy samples
(Fig. 4). The principle of operation of the tester is the
same as that used for the plate-penetration tests,
except that the impact weight and drop height are set
to Charpy specifications,
1
and the specimen is loaded
in three-point bending.
Digital calipers are used to measure all specimens.
Ice baths are used to precool selected specimens to
0C before testing, and boiling-water baths are used to
preheat other specimens to 100C before testing.
9A.4 Materials
Various polymers, such as polymethylmethacry-
late, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride,
acrilonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer, and
epoxy, may be studied in the plate-penetration
experiment. These polymer samples are prepared by
cutting square specimens from large pre-cast sheets.
Charpy impact specimens are made from
construction-grade alloys of steel and aluminum.
Standard dimensions for this specimen are: length L =
55 mm, height D = 10 mm, width w = 10 mm. (See

1
In the lab, the actual values used for height H and weight
W may be only approximately those of the standardized
Charpy test.
x
H
Impactor
Specimen
Velocity
gate
Support
V
Flag
W
Instrumented
tup

Fig. 2. Schematic of a
Dynatup drop tower.
Specimen
Edge of
clamped area
a
h

Fig. 3. Plate-penetration specimen geometry.
L
D
w
Notch

Fig. 4. Geometry of Charpy impact specimen.
TAM 224/CEE 210 Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness 93
Fig. 1.) The notch should have a depth d of 2 mm, an
included angle of 45, and a root radius of 0.25 mm.
9A.5. Experimental Procedure
Plate penetration (polymers)
1. For each specimen, measure the diameter or width
2b and the mean thickness h at the center. Begin
filling out Table 1.
2. Adjust the crosshead to the desired height H and
weight W.
3. If the sample is to be tested at a temperature other
than room temperature, place the sample in a
suitable bath and allow time for the sample to
reach a uniform temperature.
4. Prepare the LabVIEW

software to acquire the

impact data.
5. Place the sample to be tested into the pneumatic
clamping fixture, making certain to center it
properly. Enable the clamp and put it in the down
position. Close the safety door.
6. When the software is ready to run a test, release
the crosshead.
7. Obtain graphs of load P vs. time t and absorbed
energy vs. time t. Record the impact velocity V,
the maximum load P
max
, the time to failure t
fail
,
and the total absorbed energy
tot
.
8. After the test is complete, enable the clamp and
put it in the up position. Remove the sample and
clear any debris from the fixture.
9. Reassemble the specimen, if necessary, and make
a detailed sketch of the fracture.
Charpy impact (metals)
1. Using calipers or a micrometer, measure the
Charpy specimen length L, depth d, width w, and
notch depth. Record these and other data in
Table 2.
2. If the sample is to be tested at a temperature other
than room temperature, place the sample in a
suitable bath and allow time for the sample to
reach a uniform temperature.
3. Prepare the LabVIEW

software to acquire the

impact data.
4. Place the Charpy specimen into the three-point
loading fixture, making certain to center it
properly. Close the safety door.
5. When the software is ready to run a test, release
the crosshead.
6. Obtain graphs of load P vs. time t and absorbed
energy vs. time t. Record the maximum load
P
max
and the total absorbed energy
tot
.
7. After the test is complete, remove the sample and
make a detailed sketch of the fracture.
9A.6. Theoretical Considerations
Analysis of the drop tower experiment
In the instrumented drop-tower test, the only
quantity measured as a continuous function of time is
the force P t ( ) that the specimen exerts on the strain-
gaged tup. It is important to observe that the
specimen itself is not instrumentedtherefore,
specimens can be prepared easily and tested quickly.
However, the ability to construct loaddeflection plots
requires that the deflection of the specimen be
determined somehow as a function of time, and this
determination is done indirectly by numerical
integration of the equation of motion for the tup.
To see how this is done, consider a free-body
diagram of the falling impactor (Fig. 5). Using
Newtons second law, one can show readily that the
impactor acceleration a t ( ) is given by
a t g
P t
M
( )
( )
= , (1)
where M is the mass of the impactor. Let time t = 0
correspond to the initiation of impact. Integrating
Eqn. (1) twice with respect to time and employing the
initial conditions
Mg
P(t)
x
M

Fig. 5. Free-body diagram
of the impactor.
94 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210

v t V t
x t t
( )
( )
= =
= =
at
at
0
0 0

gives the following expressions for the velocity v t ( )
and position x t ( ) of the impactor:

0
0
( )
( ) d
( ) 0 ( ) d
t
t
P t
v t V g t
M
x t v t t

(
= +
(

= +

. (2)
As long as the specimen is not punctured or totally
fractured, and as long as the specimen remains in
contact with the tup, the specimen displacement will
be equal to x t ( ).
The LabVIEW

software is written to perform the

integrations in Eqn. (2) numerically, after the P t ( ) data
have been collected and stored. The first data file
(*.d1) contains the value of load P as a function of
time t . The second data file (*.d2) contains, in order,
the following quantities: P t ( ), W P t ( ), a t ( ), v t ( ), and
x t ( ). While the second data file is being prepared, the
absorbed energy ( ) t is also being calculated as a
continuous function of time:

0
( ) d ( ) ( ) d
t
t P x P t v t t = =

. (3)
From this equation, it is seen that once P t ( ) 0 (due
to total specimen failure, total penetration, or loss of
contact), there is no further increase in absorbed
energy, and therefore ( ) t has reached its maximum
or total value
tot
.
General material response
Typical impact test data for brittle and ductile
materials are sketched in Fig. 6. Integrals under these
curves or to any point along the curves give the
energy absorbed by the specimen up to that point.
The total absorbed energy during impact is denoted
by
tot
. From Eqn. (3) it is seen that brittle specimens,
even if they sustain large forces, will break at a small
displacement and will therefore exhibit a low
absorbed energy
tot
.
Also, each curve shows a load inflection
associated with initial damage. This inflection is the
instance of crack formation. An analysis of the data
can be used to pick out points of interest, such as
maximum load, onset of nonlinearity, or first cracking.
Plate penetration
The plate-penetration test, when conducted in a
controlled manner, allows valuable comparisons to be
made between dissimilar materials, or between differ-
ent batches of, or manufacturing methods for, the
same material. Such aspects as first crack or damage,
relative stiffness, proportional limit, composite failure,
ductile or elastomeric failure, and failure mode can be
studied for both ordinary and composite materials
(ASTM D 3763).
Extrapolation of results to specimens of different
thickness, however, is not always straightforward
because shear and flexural effects scale differently
with thickness (ASTM D 3763). Also, care must be
exercised to eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level
such spurious dynamic effects as inertial load of the
specimen and harmonic oscillations of the specimen
and tup (Cheresh and McMichael 1987).
In this laboratory, the effect of temperature on the
impact resistance of some common polymers is a
subject of primary interest. If impact tests on a given
material are conducted over a sufficiently broad
temperature range, one can correlate the glass-
transition temperature T
g
for that material with the
temperature dependence of impact resistance. Below
the glass-transition temperature, the behavior is
brittle, the time to failure is short, and very little
energy is absorbed. Near or above the glass-transition
temperature, the behavior is rubbery, the time to
failure is relatively long, and the energy absorbed is
greatly increased.
Every polymer has a glass-transition temperature.
However, the value of T
g
does not always fall in the
0C to 100C range considered in this laboratory.
Tough engineering polymers, such as polypropylene,
have values of T
g
below 0C, whereas some aerospace
polymers, such as the polyimides, have values of T
g

well above 100C. Representative values of T
g
are
given in a table in the Discussion (Section 9A.8).
Displacement,
I
m
p
a
c
t

l
o
a
d
,

P
Displacement,
I
m
p
a
c
t

l
o
a
d
,

P
Brittle Ductile
tot

tot

Fig. 6. Two representative impact tests, one showing
brittle response and one showing ductile response.
TAM 224/CEE 210 Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness 95
Charpy impact
The long-established Charpy impact test is a
relatively inexpensive and standardized way to test
materials (primarily metals) to rapid failure in bend-
ing. Charpy results, like the newer plate-penetration
results, are useful for comparative purposes.
It has been found that body-centered-cubic
materials, such as steel at ordinary temperatures,
exhibit a brittle-to-ductile transition (BDT) tem-
perature below which they absorb very little energy
and above which they absorb considerable energy
(Fig. 7). Face-centered-cubic materials, such as stain-
less steel and aluminum, generally do not exhibit a
noticeable BDT. (See, for example, Askeland (1989) or
Flinn and Trojan (1990) for additional details.)
9A.7. Analysis of Results
Plate penetration
1. For each polymer tested, plot the values of maxi-
mum load and total absorbed energy as functions
of test temperature. Use linear graph paper for
this purpose.
2. Sketch the probable dependence of maximum load
and absorbed energy on temperature.
Charpy impact
3. Using data points on linear graph paper, plot
energy absorbed (in joules) as a function of
temperature (in C) for the samples tested. If the
Charpy specimen dimensions are significantly
different from the standard values, make an
appropriate notation on the plot.
4. Sketch the probable dependence of energy
absorbed as a function of temperature, extrapo-
lating to slightly higher and lower temperatures
than those actually used in the lab. Keep in mind
that the minimum energy that can be absorbed is
zero; the maximum energy that can be absorbed is
the initial potential energy WH of the impactor,
which in the standard Charpy impact test is 358 J
(264 ftlb).
9A.8. Points for Discussion
Note.Your lab instructor will indicate which of the
following questions are to be addressed in your report.
Plate penetration
1. Compare the energy absorbed, the maximum
load, the time to failure, and the type of fracture
for the different samples at the various
temperatures. (Refer to your sketches of the failed
samples.) What can be said about the ductility of
each polymer tested?
2. State whether the glass-transition temperatures for
your materials appear to be within the range of
temperatures considered in this laboratory. If so,
what is your estimate of their values? If not, then
is the glass-transition temperature higher than
your highest temperature or lower than your
lowest one?
3. State how the temperature dependence of
absorbed energy correlates with the published
values of glass-transition temperature T
g
for your
polymers. (See accompanying table.)
4. Is there any correlation between T
g
and fracture
toughness for a polymer? (See table above.)
5. Compare the impact velocity and resulting
FCC
BCC
E
n
e
r
g
y

a
b
s
o
r
b
e
d
Temperature, T
T
BDT
0
Brittle
Ductile

Fig. 7. Brittle-to-ductile transition.
T
g
E
K
IC

Abbr. Polymer
name
C GPa MPa
m

ABS Acrylonitrile-
butadiene-
styrene
copolymer
80 2.1
HDPE High-density
polyethylene
7 0.75 25
LDPE Low-density
polyethylene
3 0.2 12
PMMA Polymethyl-
methacrylate
105 3.3 1.6
PP Polypropylene 27 1.3 3.5
96 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
absorbed energy for the polymer tested at two
different heights. How is the ductility of the
polymer related to strain rate?
6. If epoxy samples were used, then they consist of a
resin mixed with varying amounts of flexibilizer
and a curing agent. Suggested ratios of resin and
flexibilizer are shown in the following table for
each type of sample:
The thin discs (Fig. 2) of each epoxy composition
are fabricated by pouring the appropriate resin
mixture into a circular mold at room temperature
and then curing at an elevated temperature
(typically 70C) for one hour.
Compare the energy absorbed, the maximum
load, the time to failure, and the type of fracture
for the different flexibilizer concentrations. (Refer
to your sketches of the failed samples.) What can
be said about the ductility of each epoxy tested?
Charpy impact
7. For each of the materials tested, is there a
noticeable brittle-to-ductile transition? If so, esti-
mate the BDT temperature. How is the nature of
the fracture surface related to the test temperature,
within the range of temperatures used?
8. If 6061-T6 aluminum was used in your test, would
you expect 7075-T6 aluminum to behave in a
similar fashion? (Or, if 7075-T6 was used, would
you expect 6061-T6 to behave similarly?)
Consider such aspects as maximum load, energy
absorbed, time to failure, and BDT temperature.
9. Determine whether your instrumented Charpy
tests were conducted under standard conditions
for the Charpy test.
9A.9. References
Plate penetration
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1986.
Standard test method for high-speed puncture
properties of plastics using load and displacement
sensors. ASTM Standard D 376386. Philadel-
phia: ASTM.
Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones. 1986. Engineering
Materials 2An Introduction to Microstructures,
Processing and Design. Oxford: Pergamon.
Cheresh, M. C., and S. McMichael. 1987. Instru-
mented impact test data interpretation. In Instru-
mented Impact Testing of Plastics and Composite
Materials, ASTM STP 936. Philadelphia: ASTM,
9-23.
Charpy impact
Askeland, D. R. 1989. The Science and Engineering of
Materials, 2nd ed. Boston: PWS-Kent, 159-162.
Callister Jr., W. D. 2003. Materials Science and Engi-
neeringAn Introduction, 6th ed. New York:
Wiley, Section 8.6.
Flinn, R. A., and P. K. Trojan. 1990. Engineering
Materials and Their Applications, 4th ed. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 162-164.
Composition of epoxy samples
Sample Parts by weight
type Resin Flexibilizer
F-0 100 0
F-40 60 40
F-80 20 80
TAM 224/CEE 210 Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness 97
Table 1Plate-penetration data (Polymers)
Measurement or property Material
Name Symbol Units PMMA
Specimen dimensions and impact parameters
Specimen shape
Specimen diameter or
edge length
2b mm
Specimen thickness h mm
Crosshead height H m
Crosshead weight W N
Avail. energy (theor.) WH

J
Measurements of time to failure, maximum load, and energy absorbed

Environment




Time
t
fail

(msec)
Max.
load
P (kN)
Total
energy
(J)
Time
t
fail

(msec)
Max.
load
P (kN)
Total
energy
(J)
Impact data

Freezing water
(____C)




Sketch of fracture
surface


Impact data

Room temperature
(____C)




Sketch of fracture
surface


Impact data

Boiling water
(____C)




Sketch of fracture
surface


Test date: Group: Students name:

98 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Table 2Charpy impact data
Measurement or property Material
Name Symbol Units _____ Steel __________ Aluminum
Specimen dimensions and impact parameters
Length L mm
Depth D mm
Width w mm
Notch depth d mm
Notch root radius r mm
Crosshead height H m
Crosshead weight W N
Avail. energy (theor.) WH J
Measurements of maximum load and energy absorbed
Temperature T C
Max. load
(kN)
Energy
(J)
Max. load
(kN)
Energy
(J)
Impact data

Freezing water
(____C)




Sketch of fracture
surface


Impact data

Room temperature
(____C)




Sketch of fracture
surface


Impact data

Boiling water
(____C)




Sketch of fracture
surface


Test date: Group: Students name:
TAM 224/CEE 210 Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness 99
Fracture Toughness
9B.1 Objective
The purpose of fracture-toughness testing is to
determine the value of the critical stress-intensity
value, or plane-strain fracture toughness K
C I
, of high-
strength materials. This material property is used in
the design of structural members made of high-
strength materials, which are often susceptible to
rapid fracture in loading situations that would
normally cause lower-strength materials to yield
without fracturing.
9B.2. Apparatus
An MTS 90-kN (20-kip) capacity servo-hydraulic
test frame with swivel-pin grips is used to load a
compact tension specimen that has been precracked in
fatigue. See Fig. 1. A load cell is used to measure the
load P applied to the specimen, and a clip gage is
used to measure the crack-opening displacement
(COD) of the specimen. LabVIEW

software is used
to control the test and to obtain a plot of load P versus
crack-opening displacement .
9B.3. Material
Type 7075-T6 aluminum is generally used to make
the compact tension specimen. This high-strength,
lightweight alloy is commonly used in aircraft
structures.
9B.4. Experimental Procedure
Note.The laboratory technician will normally have
the specimen installed and COD gage already attached.
1. Observe the fatigue precrack in the vicinity of the
machined crack tip of the compact tension speci-
men, using a video camera fitted to a microscope
(Fig. 1).
2. Prepare the data-acqusition system to plot load P
versus crack-opening displacement .
3. Load the specimen slowly until failure occurs,
observing the loaddeflection plot and viewing
the deformation of the specimen in the area of the
crack tip. After the specimen fails, note the
appearances of the machined surfaces, the fatigue-
precracked surface, and the final fracture surface.
Record comments in Table 3.
4. Using calipers or a micrometer, measure the speci-
men and crack dimensions, and record these data
in Table 3. See Fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Removing upper pin from a failed
compact tension specimen.
Fatigue
precrack
Thickness
=
Notch for
COD gage
d
h
a
B
w
P
P

Fig. 2. Nomenclature for a
compact tension specimen.
Specimen
910 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
9B.5. Theoretical Considerations
The stress-intensity factor K
I
at the tip of the
precrack in a compact tension specimen
2
is given by
K
P
B w
f
I
= ( ) , (4)
where P is the applied load, w is the specimen width
(illustrated in Fig. 2), B is the specimen thickness, and
f ( ) is a geometrical factor; denotes the ratio a w / ,
where a is the crack length (including the precrack
see Fig. 2). The function f ( ) is plotted in Fig. 3.
3

For a sufficiently large load P
Q
, the specimen fails,
and a provisional value of fracture toughness K
Q
is
calculated from Eqn. (4), i.e.
K
P
B w
f
Q
Q
= ( ) . (5)
The value K
Q
may turn out to be the critical stress-
intensity factor, or fracture toughness, K
IC
, but only if
some conditions are met.

2
The singular nature of the stress field surrounding a mode-I
loaded crack, and the visualization of this singularity using
photoelasticity, are considered in the Discussion
(Section 9B.7).
3
The ASTM (1987) formula for f ( ) is
f ( ) =
( 2 + )
(1 )
3 2
( 0.886 + 4. 64 13. 32
2
+14.72
3
5. 6
4
) .

For proper fracture-toughness testing, should be in the
range

0. 45 < <0.55 .
First of all, the correct value of P
Q
must be
established; there are three principal types of load-
versus-COD curves that are encountered, as shown in
Fig. 4. The dashed line OP
5
in the figure is drawn at
0.95 of the slope of the linear portion of the P vs.
curve. The point of intersection of this secant with the
original curve defines point P
5
. Then, point P
Q
is
determined as follows: If the load at every point on
the record that precedes P
5
is lower than P
5
, then the
loaddeflection curve is of type I, and P
Q
= P
5
; but if
there is a maximum load preceding P
5
that exceeds P
5
,
then the loaddeflection curve is of type II or III, and
P
Q
is this maximum load.
Second, the conditions for plane strain at the root
of the fatigue precrack must also be checked; if the
plastic zone size at the root of the crack is too large, as
illustrated in Fig. 5, then the state of stress is rather
more plane-stress-like than plane-strain-like, and the
apparent fracture toughness K
Q
of the material will be
larger than the actual plane-strain value K
IC
that is
sought. By analysis and experience, it has been found
that plane-strain conditions exist if the thickness B and
crack length a are sufficiently large compared with the
plastic zone size; the accepted rule (ASTM 1987) is:

2
, 2.5
Q
y
K
B a

| |
|
|
\ .
, (6)
where
y
is the yield strength of the material being
tested. If B and a meet the minimum criteria in
Eqn. (6), as they would for the specimen illustrated in
Fig. 6, then
K K
C Q I
= . (7)
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60
6
8
10
14
12
Ratio of crack length to width, = a/w
F
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

f
(

)
a
w
P
P

Fig. 3. Plot of the function f ( ) for
a compact tension specimen.
L
o
a
d
,

P
Crack-opening displacement,
Type I Type II Type III
P = P
P
P
P
P
P
P = P
Q 5
Q
5
max max
5
Q max
O O O

Fig. 4. Types of loaddisplacement curves observed in K
IC

testing.
TAM 224/CEE 210 Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness 911
Otherwise, K
IC
< K
Q
; that is, K
Q
is an upper bound to
the true value of fracture toughness K
IC
.
9B.6. Analysis of Results
1. Compute the value = a w / , where a is the initial
crack length and w is the effective width of the
compact tension specimen. Find the value of the
geometry factor f ( ) from Fig. 3.
2. Determine the value of the critical load P
Q
from
the loaddeflection plot obtained in the labora-
tory. Determine the type (I, II or III) of the loading
curve.
3. Compute a provisional value of the critical stress-
intensity factor, K
Q
, given by Eqn. (5).
4. If the conditions in Eqn. (6) are met, then the
fracture toughness K
IC
is equal to the provisional
K
Q
. If the conditions in Eqn. (6) are not met, then
a thicker specimen (or one with a longer crack, or
both) must be used to determine K
IC
.
The uniaxial yield strength
y
of 7075-T6 alumi-
num is about 500 MPa (73 ksi), whereas the yield
strength of 6061-T6 aluminum is considerably
lowerabout 280 MPa (40 ksi), according to
Marks Handbook (1987).
Provide calculations, and state your final
conclusion(s).
9B.7. Points for Discussion
Note.Your lab instructor will indicate which of the
following questions are to be addressed in your report.
1. Discuss the features of the fracture surface of the
compact tension specimen, and correlate these
features with the condition(s) for plane-strain
fracture-toughness testing.
2. A typical loaddeflection plot is shown in Fig. 7
for a quenched and tempered 4340 steel. Analyze
the plot to determine, if possible, the fracture
toughness of this steel. Dimensions of the sample
are w = 50.8 mm (2.00 in.), a = 25.4 mm (1.00 in.),
and B = 25.4 mm (1.00 in.). Assume that the yield
strength of this 4340 steel is 1500 MPa (220 ksi).
Are the conditions for plane-strain testing met?

Fig. 5. Failed compact tension specimen of 6061-T6
aluminum, showing large shear lips and associated lack
of plane-strain conditions at the crack tip.

Fig. 6. Failed compact tension specimen of 7075-T6
aluminum, showing a flat fracture surface and
associated plane-strain conditions at the crack tip.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Crack-opening displacement, (in.)
L
o
a
d
,

P

(
k
i
p
s
)
Quenched and tempered
4340 steel

Fig. 7. Fracture-toughness loaddeflection curve
for a 4340 steel.
912 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Explain your work, and include the calculations.
Give answers in both SI and U.S. customary units.
3. Consider how fracture mechanics and photo-
elasticity can be used together to investigate the
state of stress surrounding a mode-I loaded sharp
crack (Fig 8). Under plane-strain conditions, if the
stresses remain elastic, the stress distribution for a
sharp-tipped, flat crack in an infinitely large body
can be shown to be

I
3
1 sin sin
2 2
3
1 sin sin
cos 2 2
2 2
3
sin cos
2 2
2
x
y
xy
z
K
r

+

=
` `


)


)
, (8)
where
z
is the out-of-plane normal stress, and
K
I
is the mode-I stress-intensity factor. Recall that
the in-plane principal-stress difference
1 2
,
which gives rise to fringes in a photoelastic model,
can be calculated for any combination of
x
,
y
,
and
xy
from the Mohrs circle equation

2
2
1 2
2
2
x y
xy


| |
= +
|
|
\ .
. (9)
Show by combining Eqns. (8) and (9) that the
principal-stress difference for a mode-I loaded
crack is given by

1 2
2
=
K
r
I
sin . (10)
(You will need to use the double-angle formula
sin sin cos

= 2
2 2

and the fact that the square root in Eqn. (9) is
taken to be positivethat is,
1
is always greater
than or equal to
2
.)
Finally, recall from Lab 8 that the photoelastic
fringe value N is related to the principal-stress
difference by the equation


1 2
=
Nf
h
, (11)
where f

is the fringe constant for the photoelastic

material and h is the thickness of the model.
Combine Eqns. (10) and (11) to show that the
theoretical fringe distribution N r ( , ) is given by
N r
h
f
K
r
( , ) sin

=
I
2
. (12)
This distribution is illustrated in Fig. 9. Note that
along any radial line ( = const ), the value of N
increases as 1/ r as the crack tip is approached.
4. Using Eqn. (12), determine the value of the stress-
intensity factor K
I
for the crack in the compact
tension specimen that is illustrated in Fig. 10.
Note in particular that along a vertical line
Crack
P
P
x
y

xy
r

Fig. 8. Nomenclature for stresses surrounding a
mode-I loaded crack.
Crack
P
P
x
y
N = 1
N = 2
N = 3
(etc.)
N = 0
N = 1

Fig. 9. Theoretical photoelastic fringe pattern for a
mode-I loaded crack in an infinite medium.
TAM 224/CEE 210 Impact Testing and Fracture Toughness 913
emanating from the crack tip, = / 2 and
consequently r y = . Therefore, from Eqn. (12),
K
f
h
N y
I
=

2 | | . (13)
For the PSM-1

material that was used, the fringe

constant f

is about 7.0 kN/m (40 psi-in.), and the

model has a thickness of 5.54 mm (0.218 in.). To
calculate K
I
, you will need at least one value of
the fringe number and its corresponding location.
In Fig. 10 there are several fringes to choose
fromnote that the whole-order fringes
( N = 0 1 2 , , ,L) in a light-field photograph are
white, whereas the half-order fringes
( N =
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2 , , ,L) are blackbut it is recom-
mended that only the crack-tip dominated fringes
of order 4
1
2
, 5, and 5
1
2
be considered, since these
are far enough away from the blunt crack tip to be
relatively insensitive to the actual shape of the tip,
yet near enough to the crack tip to be unaffected
by specimen boundaries and loading points.
Remember to scale your measurements for fringe
location based on the actual size of the specimen.
(The image in Fig. 10 was enlarged slightly for
printing.)
Express your result for K
I
in MPa m .
9B.8. References
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1987.
Standard E399-87, Test method for plane-strain
fracture toughness of metallic materials. Annual
Book of ASTM Standards. Philadelphia: ASTM.
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1991.
Standard D5045-91a, Plane-strain fracture
toughness and strain energy release rate of plastic
materials. Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
Philadelphia: ASTM.
American Society for Testing and Materials. 1991.
Standard B645-91, Plane-strain fracture toughness
testing of aluminum alloys. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards. Philadelphia: ASTM.
Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones. 1981. Engineering
MaterialsAn Introduction to their Properties and
Applications. Oxford: Pergamon Press, Chapter 14
(esp. pp. 129-132).
Callister Jr., W. D. 2003. Materials Science and Engi-
neeringAn Introduction, 6th ed. New York:
Wiley, Section 8.5.
Dieter, G. E. 1986. Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 356-359.
Flinn, R. A., and P. K. Trojan. 1990. Engineering
Materials and Their Applications, 4th ed. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, Sections 11.4, 19.1-19.11.
Hertzberg, R. H. 1983. Deformation and Fracture
Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 2nd ed. New
York: Wiley, 300-301, 675.

Fig. 10. Light-field photoelastic fringe pattern in a
compact tension specimen containing a blunt notch.
Outside dimensions of the specimen are 63.5 mm x
63.5 mm (2.5 in. x 2.5 in.).
4
0 1 2 3
0
3
3
3 6
914 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Table 3Fracture-toughness testing data
Measurement or property Material
Quantity Symbol Units __________ Aluminum
Initial data
Thickness B

mm
Width
w
mm
Fractured length w a mm
Crack length a mm
Geometry factor f ( )
Fracture toughness calculations
Type of loaddeflection
curve


Maximum load P
max

kN
Failure load P
Q
kN

Detail of fracture surface
or final shape






Yield strength
y
MPa
Provisional fracture
toughness
K
Q

MPa
m

Minimum B, a for
plane strain
2
2.5
Q
y
K

| |
|
|
\ .

mm

Derived quantities
Fracture toughness K
C I

MPa
m

Test date: Group: Students name:
Printed 7/9/03