Water Resources Ans1 VARIATION IN THE RAINFALL 1.

Though the jet streams go a long way in explaining the origin of monsoon some questions remain unanswered. The great variation in the amount of rainfall both spatially and temporally, the high degree of uncertainty related to the date of arrival etc. are unexplained. Meteorologists have been trying to explain these phenomena from different angles relating to wide variety of generalisation. They have been monitoring huge high pressure or anticyclone zones that form a few kilometres below the jet streams. This ridge hovers over south Goa. It has been noticed that if the ridge moves towards karwar in Karnataka it does not augur well for the monsoon. This high-pressure zone, it is reasoned, blocks the low flowing south westerly monsoon from intensifying over the west coast. When it is not positioned well, several meteorologists remain sceptical about the monsoon's performance. 2. The unusual cooling of surface temperatures over the Arabian Sea by as much as 3 to 4 degrees before the onset of monsoon is another curious phenomenon. This is due to the cool Somali current. It pushes the cool waters of the Indian Ocean towards the Arabian Sea and the drop in temperature seen to have an impact on the progress of the rains. 3. Just before the monsoon sets over south-east Asia the atmosphere pressure over the Indian Ocean drops. Simultaneously about 10,000 kilometres away in the South Pacific there is rise in pressure, when the rain is over, this reverses. This phenomenon called southern oscillations is key indicator of the south-west monsoon. When the pressure over Indian Ocean is lower than normal it augurs well for the good monsoon Ans 2 FLOODS A flood represents an unusual high stage in a river such that the river overflows its banks and, thus, inundates the adjoining land. Floods cause huge loss of life and property besides disrupting all human activities resulting into large economic loss. India suffers greatly on account of floods or hydrologic droughts occurring recurrently in one or other part of the country. Hydrologic drought is a condition (or period) during which stream flows are inadequate to supply for the established uses (domestic, irrigation, hydropower etc.) of water under a given water-management system. Complete control over floods and droughts is impossible to achieve. For the purpose of designing any hydraulic structure, one needs to know the magnitude of the peak flood (or flow) that can be expected with an assigned frequency during the life of the structure. Predicted Most floods are predicted using a few key measures, but keep in mind that not all floods can be predicted hence the term "flash floods" and some areas (especially desert and mountain areas) are more prone to flash flooding than others. However, as I said, there are several ways floods are predicted. The first is monitoring the amount of rainfall occurring on a real time basis. Second, monitoring the rate of change in river stage on a real time basis can help indicate the severity and immediacy of the threat. Third, knowledge about the type of storm producing the moisture, such as duration, intensity and areal extent, is valuable for determining possible severity of the flooding. Ans3: WELL HYDRAULICS A well is a hydraulic structure which, if properly designed and constructed, permits economic withdrawal of water from an aquifer (6). When water is pumped from a well, the water table (or the piezometric surface in case of a confined aquifer) is lowered around the well. The surface of a lowered water table resembles a cone and is, therefore, called the cone of depression. The horizontal distance from the centre of a well to the practical limit of the cone of depression is known as the radius of influence of the well. It

is larger for wells in confined aquifers than for those in unconfined aquifers. All other variables remaining the same, the radius of influence is larger in aquifers with higher transmissivity than in those with lower transmissivity. The difference, measured in the vertical direction, between the initial water table (or the piezometric surface in the confined aquifer) and its lowered level due to pumping at any location within the radius of influence is called the drawdown at that location. Well yield is defined as the volume of water discharge, either by pumping or by free flow, per unit time. Well yield per unit drawdown in the well is known as the specific capacity of the well. With the continued pumping of a well, the cone of depression continues to expand in an extensive aquifer until the pumping rate is balanced by the recharge rate. When pumping and recharging rates balance each other, a steady or equilibrium condition exists and there is no further drawdown with continued pumping. In some wells, the equilibrium condition may be attained within a few hours of pumping, while in others it may not occur even after prolonged pumping. Ans 4 India is basically an agricultural country, and all its resources depend on the agricultural output. Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life. Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains. However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the maximum yield, it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water, and to maintain correct timing of water. This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system-by collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop as and when it is needed. Thus, the necessity of irrigation can be summarised in the following four points: 1. Less Rainfall When the total rainfall is less than needed for the crop, artificial supply is necessary. In such a case, irrigation work may be constructed at a place where more water is available, and then to convey the water to the area where there is deficiency of water. 2. Non-uniform Rainfall The rainfall in a particular area may not be uniform over the crop period. During the early periods of the crop, rains may be there, but no water may be available at the end, with the result that either the yield may be less, or the crop may die altogether. 3. Commercial Crops with Additional water The rainfall in a particular area may be sufficient to raise the usual crops, but more water may be necessary for raising commercial and cash crops. Types of Irrigation Systems There are many different types of irrigation systems, depending on how the water is distributed throughout the field. Some common types of irrigation systems include: Surface irrigation Water is distributed over and across land by gravity, no mechanical pump involved. Localized irrigation Water is distributed under low pressure, through a piped network and applied to each plant. Drip irrigation A type of localized irrigation in which drops of water are delivered at or near the root of plants. In this type of irrigation, evaporation and runoff are minimized. Sprinkler irrigation

Water is distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns from a central location in the field or from sprinklers on moving platforms. Ans-5 Irrigation efficiency is a critical measure of irrigation performance in terms of the water required to irrigate a eld, farm, basin, irrigation district, or an entire watershed. The value of irrigation efciency and its dentition are important to the societal views of irrigated agriculture and its benet in supplying the high quality, abundant food supply required to meet our growing worlds population. Irrigation efficiency is a basic engineering term used in irrigation science to characterize irrigation performance, evaluate irrigation water use, and to promote better or improved use of water resources, particularly those used in agriculture and turf/landscape management.[1 4] Irrigation efficiency is dened in terms of: 1) the irrigation system performance, 2) the uniformity of the water application, and 3) the response of the crop to irrigation. Each of these irrigation efciency measures is interrelated and will vary with scale and time. The spatial scale can vary from a single irrigation application device (a siphon tube, a gated pipe gate, a sprinkler, a micro irrigation emitter) to an irrigation set (basin plot, a furrow set, a single sprinkler lateral, or a micro irrigation lateral) to broader land scales (eld, farm, an irrigation canal lateral, a whole irrigation district, a basin or watershed, a river system, or an aquifer). Ans7 HEADWORKS Diversion headworks mainly consist of a weir (or barrage) and a canal head regulator. A weir has a deep pocket of under sluice portion upstream of itself and in front of the canal head regulator on one or both sides. The under sluice bays are separated from other weir bays by means of a divide wall. In addition, river training structures on the upstream and downstream of weir, and sediment excluding devices near the canal head regulator are provided. Detailed model investigations are desirable to decide the location and layout of headworks and its component units. 1. Weir or barrage Under sluices Divide wall Fish ladder Canal head regulator Pocket or approach channel Silt excluders/ Silt prevention devices River training works (Marginal bunds and guide banks) Under sluices Under sluice sections are provided adjacent to the canal head regulators. The under sluices should be able to pass fair-weather flow for which the crest shutters on the weir proper need not be dropped. The crest level of the under sluices is generally kept at the average bed level of the river. Divide Wall A divide wall is a wall constructed parallel to the direction of flow of river to separate the weir section and the under sluices section to avoid cross flows. If there are under sluices at both the sides, there are two divide walls. Fish Ladder A fish ladder is a passage provided adjacent to the divide wall on the weir side for the fish to travel from the upstream to the downstream advice versa. Fish migrate upstream or downstream of the river in search of food or to reach their sprawling places. In a fish ladder the head is gradually dissipated so as to provide smooth flow at sufficiently low velocity. Suitable baffles are provided in the fish passage to reduce the flow velocity. Canal Head Regulator A canal head regulator is provided at the head of the canal off taking from the diversionheadworks. It regulates the supply of water into the canal, controls the entry silt into the canal, and prevents the entry of river floods into canal. Silt Excluder

A silt excluder is a structure in the undersluices pocket to pass the silt laden water to the downstream so that only Clearwater enters into the canal through head regulator. The bottom layer of water which is highly charged with silt pass down the silt excluder an escape through the undersluices. Guide Banks and Marginal Bunds Guide banks are provided on either side of the diversion headworks for a smooth Approach and to prevent the river from outflanking. Marginal bunds are provided on either side of the river upstream of diversion headworks to protect the land and property which is likely to be submerged during pending of water in floods. Weir or Barrage A diversion head works is a structure constructed across a river for the purpose of raising water level in the river so that it can be diverted into the off taking canals. A weir is a raised concrete crest wall constructed across the river Ans 8 dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. Hydropower and pumped-storage hydroelectricity are often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Types of dam Earth fill dams The development of modern construction equipment has made massive earth fill dams economical. The Rogun and Nurek dams in Tajikistan, the world's highest, are earthfill structures. Canada's Sync rude Tailings, which will be the world's most massive, is also an earthfill structure. Embankment or rockfill dams The rockfill dam uses rock instead of earth to provide stability. It has an impervious, watertight membrane, usually an upstream facing of impervious soil, concrete paving, or steel plates; or it may have a thin interior core of impervious soil. Gravity dams Gravity dams hold back water only by the sheer force of their weight pushing downward. To do this, gravity dams must consist of a mass so heavy that the reservoir water cannot push the dam downstream or tip it over. They are much thicker at the base than the top Buttress dam A buttress dam consists of a face supported by several buttresses on the downstream side. Buttress dams are made of concrete reinforced with steel. Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. Ans-10 Cross Drainage Works: A cross drainage work is a hydraulic structure which needs to be constructed at the crossing of a natural stream and an irrigation canal flowing normally at right angles underneath or over the natural stream. It is generally a very costly item and should be avoided by, i. Diverting one stream into another. ii. Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of two streams

Types Of Cross Drainage Works: Depending upon the relative bed levels, maximum water levels and relative discharges of canals and drainages the cross drainage works may be of following types, 1-Irrigation Canal passes over the drainage: In this type of C.D work, an irrigation canal is taken over the drainage this condition involves construction of following, Aqueduct: The hydraulic structure in which irrigation canal is passing over the drainage is known as aqueduct. This structure is suitable when bed of canal is above the highest flood level of drainage. In this case, the drainage water passes clearly below the canal Siphon Aqueduct: The hydraulic structure in which irrigation canal is passing over the drainage, but the drainage water cannot pass clearly below the canal is known as siphon aqueduct. It flows under siphoned action. This structure is suitable when the bed level of canal is below the highest flood level of the drainage. Type2-Drainage passes over the irrigation canal: In this type of cross drainage work, drainage is taken over the canal. This condition involves the construction of the following, A. Super Passage: The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is passing over the irrigation canal is known as super passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the flood surface level of the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage. Siphon Super passage: The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal, but the canal water passes below the drainage under symphonic action is known as siphon super passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is below the full supply level of the canal. c) Canal Siphon: If two canals cross each other and one of the canals is siphoned under the Other, then the hydraulic structure at crossing is called canal siphon. For example, lower Jhelum canal is siphoned under the Rasul-Qadirabad link canal and the crossing structure is called L.J.C siphon Type3-Drainage and Canal intersection at the same level: In this type of work, the canal water and drainage water are permitted to intermingle. a) Level Crossing: When the beds of the drainage and canal are practically at the same level, then a hydraulic structure is constructed which is known as level crossing. This is suitable for the crossing of large drainage with main canal. The level crossing consists of the following components. 1. Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at the upstream side of the crossing point. The top level of the crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the canal. 2. Drainage Regulator: It is provided across the drainage just at downstream side of the crossing point. The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers. 3. Canal Regulator: It is provided across the canal just at downstream side of the crossing point. The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers. b) Inlet and Outlet: In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic structure is constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of water in the irrespective directions. It is not necessary for the number of inlets and outlets tube same. There may be one outlet for two or three inlets. A canal inlet is constructed when the cross drainage flow is small and its water may be absorbed into the canal without causing appreciable rise