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Basic Electronics

Introduction to Electronic

Dr. Abid Karim akarimpk@iqra.edu.pk

What is Electronics
What is the basic definition of Electronics? Flow of Electrons in Vacuum

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What is Electronics
Now it flow in solids (semiconductors) - Solid State Electronics

Why semiconductors are called semiconductor?

Why Semiconductor?

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Why Semiconductor?
Upside down shot of a Pentium 4

Why Semiconductor?
Origin of this may be traced to the invention of the TRANSISTOR in 1947

JOHN BARDEEN WALTER BRATTAIN WILLIAM SCHOCKLEY BELL LABS, 1947 THE FIRST TRANSISTOR

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Why Semiconductor?
Worldwide applications of Computer and Information Technology is the direct result of progress made in the field of Si based Integrated Circuits (ICs). A Semiconductor material posses the properties of both Conductor and Insulator. Hence its Electrical properties can tailored according to requirements.

Week-wise Course Break-up

Week 1. Topic to be Covered Introduction to Electronics, Atomic Theory and Semiconductor Principles. Bohrs Model, Electron Orbit and Energy, Electron Energy in Solids: Energy Bonds, Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor, Covalent Bonding in Semiconductors, Types of Semiconductor, Intrinsic Semiconductor, Extrinsic Semiconductor, p-type and n - type Extrinsic Semiconductor, Two Types of Current flow pn-junction Diode, Schematic Symbol, Biasing of a Diode, Unbiased Diode, Forward Biased Diode, Reverse Biased Diode, Diode curve, Forward Region, Reverse Region Diode Approximations: First Approximation (The Ideal Diode), Second Approximation, Third Approximation, Selecting an Approximation Diode Resistances: Bulk Resistance, Dynamic Resistance, Diode Load Line Deadline for Assignment # 1 Submission Quiz is due Remarks 2

Zener Diodes, Photo Conductive Cell, Light Emitting Diodes

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Diode Clipper, Diode Clamper, Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier, Bridge Rectifier, Capacitor Input Filter, Zener Regulator, Calculating other quantities, Peak-to-peak Detector
Mid Term Examinations

Quiz is due

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Week-wise Course Break-up

Week 9 Topic to be Covered Bipolar Junction Transistor: Introduction, Transistor Construction, Types of Transistor, Unbiased Transistor, Biased Transistor Transistor Biasing Configurations, Common Emitter, Common Base, Common Collector, Transistor Approximations Load Line and Operating Point, Transistor Saturation Transistor Biasing, Voltage-Divider Bias (VDB), VDB Analysis, VDB Load Line and Q-Point Deadline for Assignment # 2 Submission Quiz is due Remarks

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Two Supply Emitter Bias, Emitter Feedback Bias, Collector Feedback Bias

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Field Effect Transistors: Construction & Characteristics of JFETs, Depletion & Enhancement Type MOSFETs Fixed Bias & Self Bias Configuration, Voltage Divider Biasing, Universal JFET Bias Curve. MOSFET DC analysis Revision and group discussion Quiz is due Deadline for Assignment # 3 Submission

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Final Examinations

Class Policies and Recommended Books

Marks Distribution:
Assignments + Class Quizzes + Project(s) + Presentation(s) Midterm Examination Final Examination 25% 25% 50%

Assignments:
Assignments would be assigned at least one week before the due date and must be submitted on or before due date. No late assignment will be accepted. You have to be very careful while you are solving your assignment. Please do not try copy from someone else in order to avoid any problem at the end of the semester

Class Quizzes:
To check the class performance, sudden death test or class quizzes would be taken in class throughout the semester. At least 3 quizzes would be taken during the semester. These quizzes have to be solved in the class and they would be of short duration. There would be no LATE submission or MAKEUP for these quizzes

Recommended Books:
1. 2. Robert L. Boylestad, Electronic Devices and circuit theory 9th or latest edition (Text Book) Theodore F. Bogart, Electronic Devices And Circuits 3rd or latest edition (Reference Book)

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Course Objectives
Develop an Understanding of the Basic Semiconductor Devices and Develop Physical Principals and necessary theoretical background that form the basis for advanced level courses

What are Electronic Devices?

Classes of Active Devices Thermionic (Tubes) Solid State <--- focus of this course Types of Devices Diodes Bi-Polar Transistors Field Effect Transistors (FETs) Integrated Circuits (ICs) Solid State Lasers Solid State Switches Negative Resistance (IMPATT, TRAPATT, GUNN Effect) Physics of Devices Crystal Growth Band Theory of Solids

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Semiconductor Materials
Material

The table list some semiconducting elements and compounds together

Elements

C (diamond) Ge Si Sn GaAs InAs InSb GaP GaN InN -SiC ZnO CdSe ZnS

Groups III-V compounds

Materials commonly used in the development of semiconductor devices: Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Groups IV-IV compounds Groups II-VI compounds

Si Atom
Valence shell (4 valence electrons)

Valence electron

Nucleus orbiting electrons

Silicon
14 orbiting electrons (Tetravalent)

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Energy Levels in Solids

Energy Levels in Solids

Level used by free electrons

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Bandgap and Material classification

To defined electrical properties (which is our topic), only two top most energy levels are considered The top most level is called Conduction band The second level is called Valence band

Bandgap and Material classification

Based on bandgap, solid can be classified as

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Covalent Bonding
Atomic Number of Si = 14 Si atoms within the diamond lattice, exhibit a bonding which involves the attraction of neighboring atoms. Therefore a Si atom shares its electrons with 4 neighboring atoms. This results in equal sharing of electrons or covalent bonding

Covalent Bonding

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Movement of an Electron
An electrons can only move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level if; 1. Either its in valance band leaving behind a hole. 2. Or there is an empty place (hole) in higher energy level

Electron-hole Pair Production and Recombination

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Two-dimensional Picture of Si
note: each line ( ) represents a valence electron

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Pure Si contains insignificant amount of impurity atoms (one to ten atoms in one billions) At T=0 Kelvin, all of the valence electrons are participating in covalent bonds There are no free electrons, therefore no current can flow in the silicon INSULATOR

Si

Si

Si

covalent bond

Silicon at Room Temperature

For T>0 K, the silicon atoms vibrate in the lattice. This is what we humans sense as heat. Occasionally, the vibrations cause a covalent bond to break and a valence electron is free to move about the silicon.

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Silicon at Room Temperature

For T>0 K, the silicon atoms vibrate in the lattice. This is what we humans sense as heat. Occasionally, the vibrations cause a covalent bond to break and a valence electron is free to move about the silicon. - = free electron

Silicon at Room Temperature

The broken covalent bond site is now missing an electron. hole

This is called a hole The hole is a missing negative charge and has a charge of +1. + = a hole

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
The number of electrons = the number of holes
that is, n = p= ni in pure silicon this is called intrinsic material
ni = Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

High temp more electrons/holes lower resistance

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Material 0oK ni (cm-3) Room Temp

Ge
Si GaAs

0
0 0

2.5 x 1013
1.5 x 1010 1.7 x 106

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Its seems from the table that ni is quite higher in absolute terms However, its is not enough in relative sense For example in Si there are; 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3. 2 x 1023 bonds/cm3 (because 4 bond/Si atom) Less than one bond is broken in 1013 (as ni = 1010/cm3) It is to be noted that Very few electrons/holes at room temperature ni =1.5x1010 per cm3, but nSi = 5x1022 per cm3 ni/nSi = 1.34x10-13 (less than 1 in a trillion Si bonds are broken This is a SEMICONDUCTOR

Important Facts
Band Gap: energy required to break a covalent bond and free an electron
Eg = 0.66 eV (germanium) Eg = 1.12 eV (silicon) Eg = 1.43 eV (gallium arsenide) very large number of free electronshigh conductance almost NO free electrons zero conductance

Metals have Eg= 0

Insulators have Eg > 5 eV

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
Pure semiconductor with p = n = ni, have very few applications in practical life As around 1013 bonds in a cubic cm of a Si lattice intact Number of free carrier can be increased by doping Doping basically is the addition of controlled amount of specific impurity atoms with the purpose of increasing the carrier concentration (electron or hole concentration) Element which are used for doping are called dopants This technique is used in almost all semiconductor devices being fabricated

Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors

If the dopant is a pentavalent material, the semiconductor is an n-type or donor semiconductor. Donors: As, P, Sb (APA) If the dopant is a trivalent material, the semiconductor is a p-type or acceptor semiconductor. Acceptors: B, Al, Ga, In (BAGI)

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add atoms from column V of the periodic table

Column V elements have 5 valence electrons Four of the electrons form covalent bonds with Si, but the 5th electron is unpaired. Because the 5th electron is weakly bound, it almost always breaks away from the P atom This is now a free electron.

n-type silicon

Si P

n-type silicon
Si The phosphorus atom has donated an electron to the semiconductor (Column V atoms are called donors) The phosphorus is missing one of its electrons, so it has a positive charge (+1) The phosphorus ion is bound to the silicon, so this +1 charge cant move!

P+

The number of electrons is equal to the number of phos. atoms: n = ND

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n-type silicon
This electron, if belongs to Si It would hide itself just below the conduction band This new energy level is called donor level (ED). Usually ED = 1/20 EG(Si)
EC ED

(Ec ED)

EG = 1.12 eV

EV

n-type silicon
Due to Thermal Excitation

OK

T < <300 K

T = 300 K

No. of Electrons > No. of Holes Electrons are Majority Carriers Holes are Minority Carriers

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add atoms from column III of the periodic table Column III elements have 3 valence electrons that form covalent bonds with Si, but the 4th electron is needed. This 4th electron is taken from the nearby Si=Si bond

p-type silicon

Si B

add atoms from column III of the periodic table Column III elements have 3 valence electrons that form covalent bonds with Si, but the 4th electron is needed. This 4th electron is taken from the nearby Si=Si bond This stolen electron creates a free hole.

p-type silicon

Si
hole

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Important Facts
The boron atom has accepted an electron from the semiconductor (Column III atoms are called acceptors) The boron has one extra electron, so it has a negative charge (-1) The boron ion is bound to the silicon, so this -1 charge cant move!

Si + B-

The number of holes is equal to the number of boron atoms: p = NA

p-type silicon

No. of Holes > No. of Electrons Holes are Majority Carriers Electrons are Minority Carriers

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Fermi Level
Doping would shift the Fermi level Fermi Level: Probability that the chances of existence of an energy state at Fermi level are 50% This means an energy state at the Fermi level has a probability of 1/2 of being occupied by a electron

Hole/Electron flow through a semiconductor

+ + + + + + + + + +

Free Electron (in conduction band)

14 14P P A C D

14P F E 14P

Hole 14P

B 14P

(in valence band)

The electron moves F-E-D-C-B-A The hole moves A-B-C-D-E-F (pseudo movement or displacement)

Electron Current

Conventional Current

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Temperature Effects
In an ordinary conductor, as temperature increases, the thermal vibration of electrons increases Offers higher resistance to the flow of current. Hence conductivity decreases and resistivity increases But in semiconductors, as temperature increases, No. of free carriers increases. Hence conductivity increases and resistivity decreases

Temperature Effects
Semiconductor materials have negative temperature coefficient because if we draw a graph between resistivity ( ) and temperature (T), the slope of this graph would be negative

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