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Table of Contents
Table of Contents........................................................................................................... 1-0 Introduction to Computers............................................................................................ 1-6
1 2 Introduction to Computer ...................................................................................................................1-7 Computer Organization ...................................................................................................................2-10 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 Input Unit.................................................................................................................................2-14 Storage Unit ............................................................................................................................2-15 Output Unit..............................................................................................................................2-16 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) ....................................................................................................2-17 Memory Unit............................................................................................................................2-17 Control Unit .............................................................................................................................2-18 CPU ........................................................................................................................................2-18 Secondary Storage Unit..........................................................................................................2-19 The System Concept ..............................................................................................................2-20

Generations of Computer ................................................................................................................3-21 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 First Generation of Computers (1942 1955)........................................................................3-21 Second Generation (1955 1964) .........................................................................................3-22 Third Generation (1964 1975) .............................................................................................3-22 Fourth Generation (1975 Till now) .......................................................................................3-23 Fifth Generation (Future) ........................................................................................................3-24

Types of Computers ........................................................................................................................4-25 4.1


4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4

Personal computer..................................................................................................................4-25
Tower model ..................................................................................................................................... 4-26 Desktop model.................................................................................................................................. 4-26 Notebook/ Laptop computer.............................................................................................................. 4-26 Hand-held/ PDA / Palmtop / Pocket Computers ............................................................................... 4-27

4.2 4.3 4.4

Workstation .............................................................................................................................4-27 Minicomputer ..........................................................................................................................4-28 Supercomputer and Mainframe ..............................................................................................4-28

Basic Electronics...............................................................................................................................4-29 5 Basic Electronics .............................................................................................................................5-30 5.1


5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7

Electronic Components...........................................................................................................5-30
Resistors........................................................................................................................................... 5-30 Capacitors......................................................................................................................................... 5-31 Inductors ........................................................................................................................................... 5-31 Transformer ...................................................................................................................................... 5-31 Diode ................................................................................................................................................ 5-31 Transistor.......................................................................................................................................... 5-31 Integrated Circuit .............................................................................................................................. 5-32

5.2

Testing Equipment..................................................................................................................5-32

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5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3

Digital Meter...................................................................................................................................... 5-32 Oscilloscope ..................................................................................................................................... 5-32 Power Supply.................................................................................................................................... 5-32

Logic Gates .....................................................................................................................................6-33 6.1


6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4

Simple Gates ..........................................................................................................................6-33


NOT Gate ......................................................................................................................................... 6-33 AND Gate ......................................................................................................................................... 6-34 OR Gate............................................................................................................................................ 6-34 NAND & NOR Gates......................................................................................................................... 6-35

Operating System ..............................................................................................................................6-36 7 Operating System............................................................................................................................7-37 7.1 7.2


7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4

Introduction .............................................................................................................................7-37 Kinds of an Operating System ................................................................................................7-38


Real-time operating system (RTOS) ................................................................................................. 7-38 Single-user, single task..................................................................................................................... 7-38 Single-user, multi-tasking.................................................................................................................. 7-38 Multi-user .......................................................................................................................................... 7-38

7.3
7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5

Functions of an Operating System .........................................................................................7-39


Processor Management.................................................................................................................... 7-39 Memory Management....................................................................................................................... 7-39 Device Management......................................................................................................................... 7-40 Application Interface ......................................................................................................................... 7-40 User Interface ................................................................................................................................... 7-40

Computer Codes .............................................................................................................................8-41 8.1


8.1.1 8.1.2

Bits and Bytes .........................................................................................................................8-41


Bits.................................................................................................................................................... 8-42 Bytes................................................................................................................................................. 8-43

8.2 8.3

ASCII.......................................................................................................................................8-43 Bytes Table .............................................................................................................................8-45

Computer Hardware..................................................................................................... 8-46


9 Motherboard ....................................................................................................................................9-47 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 10 Sockets & CPUs .....................................................................................................................9-48 Chipset....................................................................................................................................9-49 Bus Speed ..............................................................................................................................9-50 Memory ...................................................................................................................................9-51 Other Onboard Features.........................................................................................................9-52

Microprocessor ..............................................................................................................................10-53 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Microprocessor History .........................................................................................................10-53 Microprocessor Progression: Intel ........................................................................................10-53 Inside a Microprocessor........................................................................................................10-54 Microprocessor Performance................................................................................................10-55 Microprocessor Trends .........................................................................................................10-56 64-bit Processors ..................................................................................................................10-56

11

Random Access Memory ..............................................................................................................11-58


1-1

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11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6

Dynamic RAM .......................................................................................................................11-58 Static RAM ............................................................................................................................11-59 Memory Size .........................................................................................................................11-59 Memory Form Factor ............................................................................................................11-59 Error Checking ......................................................................................................................11-60 Types of RAM .......................................................................................................................11-61
SRAM......................................................................................................................................... 11-61 DRAM ........................................................................................................................................ 11-61 FPM DRAM................................................................................................................................ 11-61 EDO DRAM................................................................................................................................ 11-62 SDRAM ...................................................................................................................................... 11-62 DDR SDRAM ............................................................................................................................. 11-62 RDRAM...................................................................................................................................... 11-62 Credit Card Memory................................................................................................................... 11-63 PCMCIA Memory Card .............................................................................................................. 11-63 CMOS RAM ............................................................................................................................... 11-63 VRAM......................................................................................................................................... 11-63

11.6.1 11.6.2 11.6.3 11.6.4 11.6.5 11.6.6 11.6.7 11.6.8 11.6.9 11.6.10 11.6.11

12

Graphic Card .................................................................................................................................12-64 12.1 12.2 12.3 Graphics Card Basics ...........................................................................................................12-64 Processor and Memory.........................................................................................................12-65 Input and Output ...................................................................................................................12-66

13

LCD Monitor ..................................................................................................................................13-68 13.1 13.2 Active and Passive Matrix Displays ......................................................................................13-68 LCD Features and Attributes ................................................................................................13-68
Native Resolution ....................................................................................................................... 13-68 Viewing Angle ............................................................................................................................ 13-69 Brightness or Luminance ........................................................................................................... 13-69 Contrast Ratio ............................................................................................................................ 13-69 Response Rate .......................................................................................................................... 13-69 Response Rate .......................................................................................................................... 13-69

13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3 13.2.4 13.2.5 13.2.6

13.3 14

LCD Terms............................................................................................................................13-70

CRT Monitor ..................................................................................................................................14-71 14.1 14.2 14.3 Dot pitch................................................................................................................................14-72 Refresh Rate.........................................................................................................................14-73 Multiple Resolutions..............................................................................................................14-74

15

LCD vs. CRT .................................................................................................................................15-75 15.1 15.2 Advantages of LCD Monitors................................................................................................15-75 Advantages of CRT Monitors................................................................................................15-75

16

Hard Drive .....................................................................................................................................16-77 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Hard Disk Basics...................................................................................................................16-77 Capacity and Performance ...................................................................................................16-77 Inside: Electronics Board ......................................................................................................16-78 Inside: Beneath the Board ....................................................................................................16-78 Inside: Platters and Heads....................................................................................................16-79

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16.6 17

Storing the Data ....................................................................................................................16-79

Sound Card ...................................................................................................................................17-81 17.1 17.2 17.3 Analog vs. Digital ..................................................................................................................17-81 Other Sound Card Components ...........................................................................................17-81 Other Options for Sound Control ..........................................................................................17-82

18

Compact Disc ................................................................................................................................18-83 18.1 18.2 18.3 CD Player Components ........................................................................................................18-83 What the CD Player Does: Laser Focus...............................................................................18-83 What the CD Player Does: Tracking.....................................................................................18-84

19

Keyboard .......................................................................................................................................19-85 19.1 Keyboard Basics ...................................................................................................................19-85


Typing Keys ............................................................................................................................... 19-85 Numeric Keypad......................................................................................................................... 19-85 Function & Control Keys ............................................................................................................ 19-86

19.1.1 19.1.2 19.1.3

19.2 19.3 20

Inside the Keyboard ..............................................................................................................19-86 From the Keyboard to the Computer ....................................................................................19-87

Mouse ............................................................................................................................................20-89 20.1 20.2 20.3 Inside a Mouse......................................................................................................................20-89 Data Interface .......................................................................................................................20-90 Optical Mice ..........................................................................................................................20-90
Accuracy .................................................................................................................................... 20-91

20.3.1

21

Floppy Disk & Drive .......................................................................................................................21-93 21.1 21.2 21.3 History of the Floppy Disk Drive ...........................................................................................21-93 The Disk................................................................................................................................21-93 The Drive ..............................................................................................................................21-94

22

Un-Interruptible Power Supply ......................................................................................................22-95 22.1 22.2 Standby UPS ........................................................................................................................22-95 Continuous UPS ...................................................................................................................22-95

23

PC Power Supply ..........................................................................................................................23-96 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 Power Supply........................................................................................................................23-96 Switcher Technology ............................................................................................................23-96 Power Supply Standardization..............................................................................................23-97 Advanced Power Management.............................................................................................23-97 Power Supply Wattage .........................................................................................................23-98 Power Supply Problems .......................................................................................................23-99 Power Supply Improvements................................................................................................23-99

24

Scanner .......................................................................................................................................24-100 24.1 24.2 Anatomy of a Scanner ........................................................................................................24-100 The Scanning Process........................................................................................................24-101

25

Laser Printer ................................................................................................................................25-103 25.1 25.2 25.3 The Basics: Static Electricity...............................................................................................25-103 The Basics: Drum ...............................................................................................................25-103 The Basics: Fuser ...............................................................................................................25-104
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25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9

The Controller: The Conversation.......................................................................................25-105 The Laser Assembly ...........................................................................................................25-105 Writing the Page .................................................................................................................25-106 Toner Basics .......................................................................................................................25-106 Applying Toner....................................................................................................................25-106 Advantages of a Laser........................................................................................................25-107

Computer Networks ......................................................................................................................25-108 26 27 History of Networking ..................................................................................................................26-109 Types of Networking....................................................................................................................27-110 27.1 27.2 27.3 28 Local Area Network ............................................................................................................27-110 Metropolitan Area Network .................................................................................................27-110 Wide Area Network .............................................................................................................27-111

Network Topologies.....................................................................................................................28-112 28.1 Topology in Network Design...............................................................................................28-112


Bus Topology ........................................................................................................................... 28-112 Ring Topology.......................................................................................................................... 28-113 Star Topology........................................................................................................................... 28-113 Tree Topology.......................................................................................................................... 28-114

28.1.1 28.1.2 28.1.3 28.1.4

29

Network Cabling ..........................................................................................................................29-115 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 29.9 29.10 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable ................................................................................29-115 Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector ...................................................................................29-116 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable ....................................................................................29-117 Coaxial Cable......................................................................................................................29-117 Coaxial Cable Connectors ..................................................................................................29-117 Fiber Optic Cable ................................................................................................................29-118 Fiber Optic Connector.........................................................................................................29-118 Ethernet Cable Summary ...................................................................................................29-119 Wireless LANs ....................................................................................................................29-119 Installing Cable - Some Guidelines ................................................................................29-120

30 31

Network Devices..........................................................................................................................30-121 OSI Reference Model ..................................................................................................................31-123 31.1 The Layers ..........................................................................................................................31-123
Application Set ......................................................................................................................... 31-123 Transport Set ........................................................................................................................... 31-124 Protocol Stacks ........................................................................................................................ 31-124

31.1.1 31.1.2 31.1.3

32

Protocols......................................................................................................................................32-126 32.1 LAN Protocols .....................................................................................................................32-126


Ethernet ................................................................................................................................... 32-126 Fast Ethernet ........................................................................................................................... 32-126 Gigabit Ethernet ....................................................................................................................... 32-127 LocalTalk.................................................................................................................................. 32-127 Token Ring............................................................................................................................... 32-127 FDDI......................................................................................................................................... 32-128 ATM ......................................................................................................................................... 32-128
1-4

32.1.1 32.1.2 32.1.3 32.1.4 32.1.5 32.1.6 32.1.7


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33

Sub netting ..................................................................................................................................33-129 33.1 33.2 33.3 Subnetting Example............................................................................................................33-129 Subnet Ranges ...................................................................................................................33-130 First Subnet Range .............................................................................................................33-130

34 35

Network Commands ....................................................................................................................34-131 ASCII TABLE ...................................................................................................................................35-0

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Module # 1

Introduction to Computers

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Introduction to Computer

Computer has become very common in todays world. There was a time when not many people knew about the computer but today it has become so common that almost everyone has the power to afford it

The word Computer has come from the word Compute which means To Calculate and it was the basic idea behind the invention of the computer. Computer was basically designed for the calculation of complex mathematical values fast but as the time passes on, the scope of computer has also grown from a basic calculating device to a multipurpose machine.

The earlier definition of computer was: Computer is a device that performs mathematical operations at enormous speed.

If we look around, we see computer doing multiple things at the same time and most of the work done by computer today is of non-mathematical nature. At one time, it works as a multimedia player, playing MP3 songs in the background, and on the same time, a user searches the internet for his college assignment. Now both of these jobs that computer performs are of non-mathematical type. So if we still believe in the traditional definition of computer that defines it as only a Calculating Device, we negate the above mentioned capabilities of a computer, which is entirely wrong. So here is a new definition of computer which covers all the aspects and capabilities of a computer. Computer is a device that operates upon data, information and the instruction passed by the user Explanation: In above definition of computer, there are 3 factors. 1. Data 2. Information 3. Instruction passed by User

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Data: Data is a source, a raw material, which is provided to the computer to work on.

Information: Information is the result, a furnished product, which is achieved by the computer after working on the data

Instruction passed by User: Computer is just a machine. It has no instinct of its own therefore it works according to the instructions given by its user.

Examples to support the definition:

To understand the data and information in their true form, lets take the example of a newspaper. Newspaper contains hundreds of news but the different readers have attraction for different news. Some people love to read about current affairs but dont have interest in sports news. On other hand some people only like to read about sports news and have no interest in current affairs. Children have interest in children page where they can find comics, riddles, games etc. So keeping the interest of all readers in mind, newspaper press publishes all such news in one newspaper and the readers then extract the news of their interest out of it. So the newspaper is like a DATA, having all the news in it, and particular news that is extracted by the reader is the INFORMATION.

To understand all these factors all together, lets take the example of a Video CD which we play on our Computer or on a DVD player. What we do first? We first insert the Disc in the Drive (Providing Data to the Computer) then we start the Media Player program which have all the instructions written by the Programmer (Human being) like PLAY, STOP, PAUSE, EJECT, FORWARD, REWIND etc. We click the PLAY button which executes the instruction to play the DISC in background results a motion picture running on our screen (Form of Information). We select our desired Track (Video Song) and it starts.

It is quite clear from the above examples that the computer needs to have a Data first and the instructions of how to deal with the data then it generates information for the user. Lets take another general example. If we write down numbers from 1 to 10 on paper chits and put them on the floor then tell the other person to pick the largest number. The person will undoubtedly pick the chit with number 10.
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Here we are the user who provided the data in form of 10 paper chits with numbers and the other person is the computer who is working for us. We gave him the instruction to get the largest number and he picked up, having sense of numbers, the chit with number 10 as it is the largest number available in the data that we provided.

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2 Computer Organization
All computer systems perform the following five operations:

Inputting Storing Processing Outputting Controlling

Inputting: It is a process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Storing: It is a process of saving data and instructions in computer memory so that they are available for initial or for additional processing as and when required.

Processing: It is a process of performing arithmetic operations or logical operations on data, based on the instruction, in order to convert them into useful information.

Outputting: It is a process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a printed report or visual display.

Controlling: Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed. The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model to another. However, the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems.

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Computer Organization
1B

NICON
Apply Italic and Underline Style

Secondary Storage Unit

6B

Input Unit
1A
Hard Drive Flash Floppy Disk Drive CD Tape Drive

Converted form of NICON and Instruction

Central Processing Unit


Control Unit
Monitoring the whole system

001001010110 001011000011

Primary Storage Unit

Memory Unit

5
Sending processed data to Output Unit

Sending processed data back to Storage Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit


4
Applying Italic and Underline Style

001111010010

001111010010

6A

Output Unit
NICON!

Converting

001111010010
into user readable form.

NICON!

Legends Data Flow Control Units Management Flow

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Explanation of the above Diagram:

Lets understand this diagram with the help of a scenario.

Assume that the data is entering into the computer for the first time so the first place where the user and the computer will interact is Input Unit (1A). Input unit consists of input devices and input interface.

Before going further, first we must have an understanding regarding Interface and Devices.

Interface is the platform available on the motherboard (main board of a computer) that provides all the facilities like power and data transmission lines required by a device to operate. A device is attached to this interface through some cables and connectors. A device communicates with the user either by taking input or by showing output. Every device attaches to its particular interface available on the motherboard.

Now as we have a clear understanding about device and interface so lets get back to working of an input unit.

Input device (such as: A keyboard) receives data from the user and transmits it to the input interface. The data received by the input device is in human readable form but the computer has no understanding about human languages. The computer understands the language of 0 and 1, called as binary language or machine language. The input interface, after receiving data from input device, converts this human language in machine language and sends this data to Primary Storage Unit (2).

Now primary storage unit transfers this data to Memory Unit (3) of a CPU which is a preprocessing area (data is stored before final processing). The memory unit checks for the load on Arithmetic Logic Unit (4) and sends the data for processing. ALU process the data according to the instruction associated with the data and sends it back to the Primary Storage Unit (5). Primary Storage Unit then transfers this data to Output Unit (6A). The data received by output unit is in the machine language which is not understandable by human being so the Output interface converts this data into human readable form using the same coding technique used by the input interface. After converting into human readable form, the processed data is forwarded to Output Device (such as: Monitor).
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Now lets assume that the user has ordered to save the data on to Secondary Storage Unit, the data from Primary Storage Unit (5) will be forwarded to Secondary Storage Unit (6B) where this data will be stored on some storage device in machine readable form.

Suppose the user instructs the computer to retrieve the saved data from Secondary Storage Unit. In this case the data will be sent to Primary Storage Unit (2) from Secondary Storage Unit (1B).

There is a question here. When every unit is doing its job so well then what is the need of a Control Unit? Well the answer to this question is that Control Unit is the unit which is responsible for the smooth working of all units. In the diagram, you can see that there are dotted lines linking every unit with Control Unit. These lines represent the control of Control Unit over other units.

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2.1 Input Unit


An input unit is divided into 2 parts. Input Interface Input Device

The device is a part that interacts with the user. A user enters data and instruction using a device. There are many devices available for inputting data and instruction into the computer.

For Example: Keyboard Mouse Mic Scanner Camera Joystick etc.

All of these devices are used to input data and instruction. All these devices need a specific type of interface to communicate with the computer. For this purpose, every motherboard has interfaces available for these devices.

For keyboard, PS2 port, AT port and USB ports are available For Mouse, PS2 port, Serial port and USB ports are available For MIC, MIC Jack is available on a Sound Board For Scanner, Parallel port and USB ports are available For Camera, USB ports are available For Joysticks, Game port is available on Sound Board

All these interfaces are designed to support one and more than one different type of devices. These interfaces receive data and instructions from the devices and then converts them into a machine readable form (binary codes) using some coding standard like BCD, EBCDIC, ASCII etc. These interfaces are made intelligent to
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this level that they can distinguish between the device types and transform data accordingly.

For Example: A camera uses a USB port to transmit video to the computer. USB interface converts this video data into binary codes. And when we attach a USB keyboard to the same USB port then the same interface converts keyboard entered data into binary code.

After converting data into binary code, it is send to Storage unit for further processing.

In short, the following functions are performed by an input unit:

1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world. 2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. 3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.

2.2 Storage Unit


After converting data and instruction into machine readable form (binary code), input unit transfers data to computers primary storage unit.

Primary Storage Unit is also known as Temporary Memory of a computer because it only holds data only for the time till the computer is ON or the program, with which that data is associated, is running. As soon as the computer is Shut Down or the Program is terminated, Primary Storage Unit will purge the data stored.

Primary Storage Unit stores data in form of 0 and 1 and send it to CPU for processing. It again receives the processed data from the CPU and stores it till the finalization of data processing.

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When the data processing is complete, Primary Storage Unit sends this data to Output Unit.

In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to hold (store): 1. All data to be processed and the instructions required for processing (received from input devices) 2. Intermediate results of processing 3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

2.3 Output Unit


The working of an output unit is totally reverse of an input unit. Input unit receives data from outside world and converts it into machine language so that a computer can understand that. Whereas, an output converts data from computer into user readable form and supplies it to the outside world.

Output unit also consists of an interface and a device. The output interface receives data from Primary Storage Unit and converts it into user readable form using the same coding technique used by input unit and then supplies this data to output device.

Following are the common Output devices and interfaces used by them today.

1. Monitor uses VGA Interface 2. Printer uses Parallel port and USB port 3. Speakers uses Speaker jack on a sound card

Output interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (terminals, printers etc.) to the requirements of the external environment.

In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit: 1. It accepts the results produced by the computers which are in coded form and hence cannot be easily understood by us.
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2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form. 3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

2.4 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)


The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual execution of the instructions takes place during the processing operation. To be more precise, all calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and instructions, stored in the primary storage prior to processing, are transferred as and when needed to the ALU where processing takes place.

No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage to ALU and back again to storage many times before the processing is over. After the completion of processing, the final results which are stored in the storage unit are released to an output device.

The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can perform is determined by the engineering design of the ALU. However, almost all ALU are deigned to perform the four basic arithmetic operations add, subtract, multiply, divide and logic operations or comparisons such as less than, greater than, equal to.

2.5 Memory Unit


Memory Unit of a CPU is a pre-processing storage area where the data from Primary Storage Unit is stored before the final processing takes place. This unit, basically, supports the Arithmetic Logic Unit to perform its job in a better way.

What will happen if we dont have a memory unit?

In the absence of memory unit, all data from Primary Storage Unit will be directly sent to the ALU regardless it is free or loaded with bulk of processing. This situation
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will create a bottleneck and ALU will become overloaded and at the end, system will start making errors.

The memory unit controls the data stream coming from Primary Storage Unit. It receives that much data which it feels that the ALU can process.

In short, Memory Unit queues the data for processing.

2.6 Control Unit


While reading this topic, a feeling generates that how all these units are performing their jobs with this level of efficiency and another question that arise in the diagram above is that we see every unit performing some important task but Control Unit has nothing to do at all.

It is true that Control Unit has no rule in the data processing but still it plays the most important role and that is, it controls the whole system.

By selecting, interpreting, and seeing to the execution of the program instructions, the control unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous system for the other components of the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them.

2.7 CPU
The control unit, the memory unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system, in a human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.

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2.8 Secondary Storage Unit


Secondary Storage Unit is also known as Permanent Storage Unit is the portion where the data is stored forever. The data stored in this Unit will remain there for hours, days, months and years no matter how many times you shut down the system or close the program. It can only be removed when the user wants it to be removed.

Secondary Storage Unit is based on multiple devices. Some of them are fixed in form and some are removable.

Devices that reside with in the Computer and cannot be removed from outside the computer box are fixed devices.

For Example: Hard Drive is a fixed media and very reliable one too. It is present in every computer today. It stores the operating system, program files and user data.

The devices that can be added and removed to and from the computer are removable storage media.

For Example: Floppy drives Flash drives CD Tape drive Backup drive Zip drive

All these devices can be added and removed from a computer during a session as and when required. These Medias are usually used for storing user data; however, program files can also be copied to these Medias.

The data can be saved and retrieved from Secondary Storage Media anytime. It keeps the data in same order for as long as the user wants.

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2.9 The System Concept


Referring a computer as a system is very common. But why do we call it a system? What is a system?

This question arises in every mind and the answer to this question is in the definition below.

The definition of a system is:

A system is a group of integrated parts or individuals that have a common purpose of achieving some objective(s).

So, the following three characteristics are key to a system:

A system has more than one element. All the elements of a system are logically related. All the elements of a system are controlled in such a way that the system goal is achieved.

These elements may differ in their type and behavior but still they form a system.

Since a computer is made up of integrated components (input and output devices, storage, CPU) that work together to perform the steps called for in the program being executed, it is a system. The input or output units cannot function until they receive signals from the CPU. Similarly, the storage unit or the CPU alone is of no use. So the usefulness of each unit depends on other units and can be realized only when all units are put together (integrated) to form a system.

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3 Generations of Computer
The term Generation in computers actually refers to the advancements in computer technology. The basic reason behind using this term is to distinguish between technologies, both the hardware and the software which, together, make up an entire computer system.

Computers are normally classified into 5 generations. Lets discuss them briefly.

3.1 First Generation of Computers (1942 1955)


The computers under this generation had vacuum tubes as main components. Vacuum tube is a fragile glass device that was used for amplifying the electronic signals. Computers like EDVAC, EDSAC, ENIAC etc. comes under this category. There were 1000s of vacuum tubes used in these computers.
Vacuum Tubes

Advantages 1. Vacuum tubes made it possible to build a computer circuitry 2. These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their times.

Disadvantages 1. Use of 1000s of Vacuum Tubes resulted bulky size of a computer 2. Heat emitted by vacuum tubes was high which resulted in frequent burnt out 3. Air conditioning was required to reduce the hardware failure 4. Constant maintenance was required 5. Commercial production was difficult and expensive 6. Non Portable 7. Limited commercial use

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3.2 Second Generation (1955 1964)


As the technology advanced, Transistors hit the market and replaced the old fashioned vacuum tubes. Every electronic device that was using vacuum tubes started using transistors and so as the computer. The reason behind using transistor was of its size and its reliability. The computers using transistors were classified under 2nd generation of computers.
Transistors

Advantages 1. Less heat generated 2. Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers 3. More reliable 4. Improved and speedy calculations 5. Better portability 6. Wider commercial use

Disadvantages 1. Air-conditioning was required 2. Frequent maintenance was required 3. Manual assembly of individual components into a functional unit was required 4. Commercial production was difficult and costly

3.3 Third Generation (1964 1975)


Advancement in electronic technology continued and the advent of microelectronics made it possible for a man to integrate large number of circuit elements into a very small (less than 5 mm square) surface of silicon known as Chips.
Integrated Chips

As these chips had many circuit elements integrated

therefore they were called as ICs (Integrated Chips).

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This IC technology had changed the entire structure of a computer. The computers that used this technology were classified as 3rd Generation computers. These computers were the best in their performance and reliability in comparison with their predecessors.

Advantages 1. Smaller in size as compared to their previous generations 2. The reliability factor was very high 3. Heat generating was very low 4. Computation speed was high 5. Portability was possible due to smaller in size 6. Computation time was dropped from microsecond to nanoseconds 7. Production cost was lesser

Disadvantages 1. Air conditioning was still required in some cases 2. Very hi-tech technology was required for IC manufacturing

3.4 Fourth Generation (1975 Till now)


The ICs, in their early stage, only had few circuits integrated. This level of integration was called as Small Scale Integration (SSI) but with the passage of time this technology progressed very well and it had become possible to integrate up-to 100 circuits in one small chip. This level of integration was called as Medium Scale Integration (MSI). Then came the time when
Integrated Chipset

man was able to integrate over 30,000 circuits in one small chip. This level of integration was called as Large Scale Integration (LSI) and still there was no stop for it. At present, this technology has become so advanced that more than 1 million small circuits can be integrated in one single chipset. This level is called as Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)

The computers, at present, are using both LSI and VLSI chipsets as their brain. These technologies have made it possible for human being to build-up very powerful computers still keeping them smaller in size. We can see around us the
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Laptops, Palm Pilots and other handheld PDA which are easy to carry even can be kept in the pocket.

Advantages 1. Smallest in size 2. Very reliable 3. Heat generation is negligible 4. No air-conditioning required 5. Computation speed is in nanoseconds and picoseconds 6. No regular maintenance is required 7. Totally general purpose 8. Commercial production is easier and cheaper

Disadvantages 1. Highly sophisticated technology is required for manufacturing LSI chips and VLSI chips.

3.5 Fifth Generation (Future)


Computer Scientists are now working on computers with genuine I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient). The aim is to bring up a machine that will be able to reason logically. This generation of computers will be entirely different from the last four. It is totally new, totally different, and totally unique.

Most of the work on this technology is done by Japanese. The Artificial Intelligence based computers and machinery like robotics are the examples of this generation.

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4 Types of Computers
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:

Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higherquality monitor. Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously. Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

4.1 Personal computer


It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from two thousand rupees to over fifty thousand rupees. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and
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graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, HewlettPackard, and DEC.

Types of Personal Computer Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. There are two basic flavors of chassis designsdesktop models and tower modelsbut there are many variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

4.1.1 Tower model


The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.

4.1.2 Desktop model


A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slim-line models.

4.1.3 Notebook/ Laptop computer


An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs,
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memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

4.1.4 Hand-held/ PDA / Palmtop / Pocket Computers


A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook

computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

4.2 Workstation
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows 2000. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.

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4.3 Minicomputer
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

4.4 Supercomputer and Mainframe


Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

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Module # 2

Basic Electronics

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Basic Electronics

The field of electronics has a radio, audio, television, computers, fiber optics, medical, industrial and many more branches. All these branches represent the great advancement in technology however the base is still the basic principle of electricity.

For example: A battery cell that is used to provide power to a flash light also provides power to a calculator and many more electronic devices, even a Computer.

The whole working of a computer depends upon its BIOS settings and during the OFF state of a computer, a CMOS battery of 3V keeps the BIOS alive.

With the continuous growth and advancement in the field of Computers, the demand for Computer Technicians is also increasing. To be a specialist in this branch of electronics, one must have a sound grip not only on Hardware but also on Software of Computers. The electronic, magnetic and mechanical devices in a Computer refer to Hardware and the programs installed on these devices refer to Software.

5.1

Electronic Components

There are tons of electronic components available in the market and are used in electronic device but here we are going to discuss the most common components.

1. Resistors 2. Capacitors 3. Inductor 4. Transformer 5. Diodes 6. Transistors 7. IC 5.1.1 Resistors Resistors are the most common component used in electronic circuits. The purpose of resistor is to resist and reduce the flow of current in a circuit.
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Resistors are either fixed or variable in type. Some fixed resistors are color coded to indicate their resistance value, while others have their values printed right on the body. The basic unit of resistance is OHM. Variable resistors have their maximum resistance printed on them. 5.1.2 Capacitors Capacitor is used to hold/store an electric charge. Its physical construction consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator. Generally, capacitors are used to block the direct current but pass alternating current. The basic unit of capacitor is Farad (F).

Like resistors, capacitors can either be fixed or variable. Some of them are coded using a special numbering system and some others have their values printed right on the body. Capacitors come in different sizes and shapes. 5.1.3 Inductors The physical construction of an Inductor is a simple coil of wire that is why they are also referred as Coils. The working of inductor is opposite to the working of capacitors. A capacitor is supposed to block the DC and allows the AC whereas an Inductor blocks the AC and allows the DC. The basic unit of Inductor is Harry (H). Like capacitor and resistors, inductors are also either fixed or variable in type. 5.1.4 Transformer A transformer is another component that can technically be defined as an inductor, because it is constructed by placing two coils in close proximity to each other. One of the main applications of a transformer is to step up or step down an AC voltage. Transformer cannot step up or step down a DC voltage. 5.1.5 Diode A diode is an electronic component which allows current to flow through it in one direction but not the other. A diodes main function is to change an AC voltage into DC voltage. 5.1.6 Transistor A transistor is an electronic component that can be used to amplify small AC signals or switch a DC voltage. A wide variety of different types are available, so it is not practical to explain them all.

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5.1.7 Integrated Circuit Integrated Circuits (ICs) have reduced the size, weight, and power requirements of todays electronic equipment. They are replacing Transistors in electronic circuits just as Transistors once replaced Vacuum Tubes. ICs are actually microelectronic circuits. Contained within the IC itself are microscopically small electronic components such as diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors. The actual IC is formed on a single piece of silicon about the size of a pin head.

5.2

Testing Equipment

5.2.1 Digital Meter A DMM is used to measure the voltage, current or resistance in an electronic circuit. Most DMMs also have provisions for testing capacitors, diodes, and transistors. The meter may be either a hand-held or bench-top unit. All digital meters have numerical readouts which indicate directly the value of voltage, current, or resistance being measured. 5.2.2 Oscilloscope Oscilloscope is the most versatile piece of test equipment. Its basic function is to view and measure AC waveforms. Most oscilloscopes have dual-trace capabilities, which mean they can display two waveforms at the same time. 5.2.3 Power Supply A power supply is a unit capable of supplying DC voltage and current to electronic circuits under test. Modern power supplies have regulated outputs. This means that their output voltage does not fluctuate as the load current varies. In most power supplies, a red jack is used for the positive terminal and a black jack is used for the negative terminal.

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6 Logic Gates
It has always been surprising to see a computer doing something like balance a check book, or play chess, or spell-check a document. These are things that, just a few decades ago, only humans could do. Now computers do them with much of an ease. The question that always arises in our mind is that How a "chip" made up of silicon and wires do something that seems like it requires human thought?

To understand the answer to this question, first thing to be understood is Boolean Logic. Boolean logic, originally developed by George Boole in the mid 1800s, allows quite a few unexpected things to be mapped into bits and bytes.

6.1

Simple Gates

There are five simple gates that are to be learnt. With these simple gates we can build combinations that will implement any digital component we can imagine.

6.1.1

NOT Gate

The simplest possible gate is called an "inverter," or a NOT gate. It takes one bit as input and produces as output its opposite. The table below shows a logic table for the NOT gate and the normal symbol for it in circuit diagrams:

NOT Gate A Q 0 1 1 0

The NOT gate has one input called A and one output called Q. The table shows how the gate behaves. When you apply a 0 to A, Q produces a 1. When you apply a 1 to A, Q produces a 0.

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6.1.2

AND Gate

The AND gate performs a logical "and" operation on two inputs, A and B:

AND Gate A B Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

The idea behind an AND gate is, "If A AND B are both 1, then Q should be 1." This behavior can be seen in the logic table for the gate. Read this table row by row, like this:

AND Gate ABQ 0 0 0 If A is 0 AND B is 0, Q is 0. 0 1 0 If A is 0 AND B is 1, Q is 0. 1 0 0 If A is 1 AND B is 0, Q is 0. 1 1 1 If A is 1 AND B is 1, Q is 1.

6.1.3

OR Gate

The next gate is an OR gate. Its basic idea is, "If A is 1 OR B is 1 (or both are 1), then Q is 1." OR Gate A B Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

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6.1.4

NAND & NOR Gates

Above are the three basic gates. It is quite common to recognize two others as well: the NAND and the NOR gate. These two gates are simply combinations of an AND or an OR gate with a NOT gate. If we include these two gates, then the count rises to five. Here's the basic operation of NAND and NOR gates -- we can see they are simply inversions of AND and OR gates:

NOR Gate A B Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

NAND Gate A B Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

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Module # 3

Operating System

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7 Operating System
Where ever there is a computer, there is always an Operating System running in that. The operating system (OS) is the first thing loaded onto the computer -- without the operating system, a computer is useless. The purpose of an operating system is to organize and control hardware and software so that the computer behaves in a flexible and predictable way.

7.1

Introduction

Not every computer requires an operating system. Most of the home appliances like a microwave oven have a computerized mechanism. Such devices performs specific task so they dont need an operating system running. They have fixed input that results a fixed output. For a computer like this, an operating system would be an extra load. The computer in a microwave oven simply runs a single hardwired program all the time. For other devices, an operating system creates the ability to: Serve a variety of purposes Interact with users in more complicated ways Keep up with needs that change over time All desktop computers have operating systems. The most common are the Windows family of operating systems developed by Microsoft, the Macintosh operating systems developed by Apple and the UNIX family of operating systems. There are hundreds of other operating systems available for special-purpose applications, including

specializations for mainframes, robotics, and manufacturing, real-time control systems and so on. What an Operating System actually does? At the simplest level, an operating system does two things:

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1. It manages the hardware and software resources of the system. In a desktop computer, these resources include such things as the processor, memory, disk space, etc. 2. It provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without having to know all the details of the hardware.

7.2

Kinds of an Operating System

Operating Systems are classified in 4 categories 1. 2. 3. 4. Real-time operating system Single-user, Single task Single-user, Multi-task Multi User

7.2.1 Real-time operating system (RTOS)


Real-time operating systems are used to control machinery, scientific instruments and industrial systems. An RTOS typically has very little user-interface capability, and no enduser utilities, since the system will be a "sealed box" when delivered for use.

7.2.2 Single-user, single task


This operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system.

7.2.3 Single-user, multi-tasking


This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both examples of operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time.

7.2.4 Multi-user
A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the
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requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. Unix, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user operating systems.

7.3 Functions of an Operating System


The operating system's tasks, in the most general sense, fall into six categories: Processor management Memory management Device management Storage management Application interface User interface

7.3.1 Processor Management


The heart of managing the processor comes down to two related issues: Ensuring that each process and application receives enough of the processor's time to function properly. Using as many processor cycles for real work as is possible The basic unit of software that the operating system deals with in scheduling the work done by the processor is either a process or a thread, depending on the operating system.

7.3.2 Memory Management


When an operating system manages the computer's memory, there are two broad tasks to be accomplished: 1. Each process must have enough memory in which to execute, and it can neither run into the memory space of another process nor be run into by another process. 2. The different types of memory in the system must be used properly so that each process can run most effectively.

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7.3.3 Device Management

The path between the operating system and virtually all hardware not on the computer's motherboard goes through a special program called a driver. Much of a driver's function is to be the translator between the electrical signals of the hardware subsystems and the high-level programming languages of the operating system and application programs. Drivers take data that the operating system has defined as a file and translate them into streams of bits placed in specific locations on storage devices, or a series of laser pulses in a printer.

7.3.4 Application Interface

Just as drivers provide a way for applications to make use of hardware subsystems without having to know every detail of the hardware's operation, application program interfaces (APIs) let application programmers use functions of the computer and operating system without having to directly keep track of all the details in the CPU's operation. Let's look at the example of creating a hard disk file for holding data to see why this can be important.

7.3.5 User Interface


Just as the API provides a consistent way for applications to use the resources of the computer system, a user interface (UI) brings structure to the interaction between a user and the computer. In the last decade, almost all development in user interfaces has been in the area of the graphical user interface (GUI), with two models, Apple's Macintosh and Microsoft's Windows, receiving most of the attention and gaining most of the market share. The popular, open-source Linux operating system also supports a graphical user interface.

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8 Computer Codes
As we know that a Computer cannot understand human language. It uses 0 1 as its language (Binary Language). The question that arises in our mind is that if a computer cannot understand our language and we cannot understand its language (language of 0 and 1) then how it has become possible for both to understand each other. The credit goes to Codes created by us that made this impossible possible. There have been different types of Codes at different stages like: BCD Binary Coded Decimal EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange Before we start talking about these codes, we must have an understanding about how the computer manages its data. This all is done through bits and bytes.

8.1 Bits and Bytes


Bits and Bytes are very common terms used in computers. Capacity of Storage Medias like Hard Drive, CD ROM, and RAM is calculated in bytes. The size of a file created by a user is also in bytes and here we will discuss them in detail for proper understanding.

The easiest way to understand bits is to compare them to something you know: digits. A digit is a single place that can hold numerical values between 0 and 9. Digits are normally combined together in groups to create larger numbers.

For example, number 6,357 has four digits. It is understood that in the number 6,357, the 7 is filling the "1s place," while the 5 is filling the 10s place, the 3 is filling the 100s place and the 6 is filling the 1,000s place.

(6 * 1000) + (3 * 100) + (5 * 10) + (7 * 1) = 6000 + 300 + 50 + 7 = 6357

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8.1.1 Bits
Computers use binary numbers, and therefore use binary digits in place of decimal digits. The reason computers use the base-2 system is because it makes it a lot easier to implement them with current electronic technology. The word bit is a shortening of the words "Binary digIT." Whereas decimal digits have 10 possible values ranging from 0 to 9, bits have only two possible values: 0 and 1. Therefore, a binary number is composed of only 0s and 1s, like this: 1011. The question here is how to figure out what the value of the binary number 1011 is? Well the answer is simple.

(1 * 23) + (0 * 22) + (1 * 21) + (1 * 20) = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11

In binary numbers, each bit holds the value of increasing powers of 2. That makes counting in binary pretty easy. Starting at zero and going through 20, counting in decimal and binary looks like this:

0= 1= 2= 3=

0 1 10 11

11 = 1011 12 = 1100 13 = 1101 14 = 1110 15 = 1111 16 = 10000 17 = 10001 18 = 10010 19 = 10011 20 = 10100

4 = 100 5 = 101 6 = 110 7 = 111 8 = 1000 9 = 1001 10 = 1010

Explanation:

When you look at this sequence, 0 and 1 are the same for decimal and binary number systems. At the number 2, you see carrying first take place in the binary system. If a bit is 1, and you add 1 to it, the bit becomes 0 and the next bit becomes 1. In the transition from 15 to 16 this effect rolls over through 4 bits, turning 1111 into 10000.

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8.1.2 Bytes
Bits are rarely seen alone in computers. They are almost always bundled together into 8-bit collections, and these collections are called bytes. Why are there 8 bits in a byte? A similar question is, "Why are there 12 eggs in a dozen?" The 8-bit byte is something that people settled on through trial and error over the past 50 years.

With 8 bits in a byte, you can represent 256 values ranging from 0 to 255, as shown here:

0 = 00000000 1 = 00000001 2 = 00000010 ... 254 = 11111110 255 = 11111111

8.2

ASCII

Bytes are frequently used to hold individual characters in a text document. In the ASCII character set, each binary value between 0 and 127 is given a specific character. Most computers extend the ASCII character set to use the full range of 256 characters available in a byte. The upper 128 characters handle special things like accented characters from common foreign languages.

You can see the 127 standard ASCII codes below. Computers store text documents, both on disk and in memory, using these codes. For example, if you use Notepad in Windows to create a text file containing the words, "Four score and seven years ago," Notepad would use 1 byte of memory per character (including 1 byte for each space character between the words -- ASCII character 32). When Notepad stores the sentence in a file on disk, the file will also contain 1 byte per character and per space.

Experiment: Open up a new file in Notepad and insert the sentence, "Four score and seven years ago" in it. Save the file to disk under the name getty.txt. Then use the explorer and look at the
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size of the file. You will find that the file has a size of 30
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bytes on disk: 1 byte for each character. If you add another word to the end of the sentence and re-save it, the file size will jump to the appropriate number of bytes. Each character consumes a byte. ASCII Table
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS TAB LF VT FF CR SO SI 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , . / 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

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8.3

Bytes Table

When we start talking about lots of bytes, we get into prefixes like kilo, mega and giga, as in kilobyte, megabyte and gigabyte (also shortened to K, M and G, as in Kbytes, Mbytes and Gbytes or KB, MB and GB). The following table shows the binary multipliers:

Name

Abbreviation

Size (bytes)

Kilo Mega Giga Tera Peta Exa Zetta Yotta

K M G T P E Z Y

210 = 1,024 220= 1,048,576 230= 1,073,741,824 240= 1,099,511,627,776 250= 1,125,899,906,842,624 260= 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 270= 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 280= 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176

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Module # 4

Computer Hardware

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9 Motherboard
If you ever open the big cover of a CPU, you will see a lot of equipment stick to an electronic board. This board is the world of small electronic components working together to bind the whole computer. This board is the Motherboard of a Computer.

All peripheral devices of a Computer are directly and indirectly attached to the motherboard through interfaces and ports. If you want to convert your computer into a Television, all you need to do is to get a TV Tuner Card and plug it in one of the interface of a Computer. Install the related software and your Computer is practically a Television now.

A motherboard by itself is useless, but a computer needs to have one to operate. The motherboard's main job is to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let everything else connect to it. Everything that runs the computer or enhances its performance is either part of the motherboard or plugs into it via a slot or a port. The shape and layout of a motherboard is called the form factor. The form factor affects where individual
A modern motherboard

components go and the shape of the computer's case. There are several specific form factors that most PC motherboards use so that they can all fit in standard cases.

The form factor is just one of the many standards that apply to motherboards. Some of the other standards include:

The Socket for the microprocessor determines what kind of Central Processing Unit (CPU) the motherboard uses. The Chipset is part of the motherboard's logic system and is usually made of two parts - the northbridge and the southbridge. These two "bridges" connect the CPU to other parts of the computer. The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) chip controls the most basic functions of the computer and performs a self-test every time user turns it on. Some systems feature dual BIOS, which provides a backup in case one fails or in case of error during updating.
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The Real Time Clock chip is a battery-operated chip that maintains basic settings and the System Time. It uses a 3.3Volt battery (CR2032) The Slots and Ports found on a motherboard include: Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)- connections for video, sound and video capture cards, as well as network cards Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - dedicated port for video cards. Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) - interfaces for the hard drives Universal Serial Bus or Firewire connections for external peripherals Memory slots Some motherboards also incorporate newer technological advances: Redundant Array of Independent Discs (RAID) controllers allow the computer to recognize multiple drives as one drive. PCI Express is a newer protocol that acts more like a network than a bus. It can eliminate the need for other ports, including the AGP port. Rather than relying on plug-in cards, some motherboards have on-board sound, networking, video or other peripheral support.

In the next coming sections, four components that connect to the motherboard and directly affect a computer's performance are observed. This will provide an overview of a motherboard's functions and a guide for selecting new motherboards.

9.1 Sockets & CPUs


The CPU is the first thing that comes to mind when many people think about a computer's speed and performance. The faster the processor, the faster the computer can think (work). In the early days of PC computers, all processors had the same set of pins that would connect the CPU to the motherboard, called the Pin Grid Array (PGA). These pins fit into a socket layout called Socket 7. This meant that any processor would fit into any motherboard.

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Today, however, CPU manufacturers Intel and AMD use a variety of PGAs, none of which fit into Socket 7. As microprocessors advance, they need more and more pins, both to handle new features and to provide more and more power to the chip.

Current socket arrangements are often named for the number of pins in the PGA. Commonly used sockets are:

Socket 370 - for older Pentium III and Celeron processors Socket 754 - for AMD Sempron and some AMD Athlon processors Socket 939 - for newer and faster AMD Athlon processors Socket A - for older AMD Athlon processors

The newest Intel CPU does not have a PGA. It has an LGA, also known as Socket T. LGA stands for Land Grid Array. An LGA is different from PGA in that the pins are actually part of the socket, not the CPU.

Anyone who already has a specific CPU in mind should select a motherboard based on that CPU. For example, if a user wants to use one of the new multi-core chips made by Intel or AMD, he will need to select a motherboard with the correct socket for those chips. CPUs simply will not fit into sockets that don't match their PGA.

9.2

Chipset

The chipset is like a "glue" that connects the microprocessor to the rest of the motherboard and therefore to the rest of the computer. On a PC, it consists of two basic parts -- the northbridge and the southbridge. All of the various components of the computer communicate with the CPU through the chipset. The northbridge connects directly to the processor via the front side bus (FSB). A memory controller is located on the northbridge, which gives the CPU fast access to the memory. The northbridge also connects to the AGP or PCI Express bus and to the memory itself. The southbridge is slower than the northbridge, and information from the CPU has to go through the northbridge

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before reaching the southbridge. Other busses connect the southbridge to the PCI bus, the USB ports and the IDE or SATA hard disk connections.

Chipset selection and CPU selection go hand-in-hand, because manufacturers optimize chipsets to work with specific CPUs. The chipset is an integrated part of the motherboard, so it cannot be removed or upgraded. This means that not only must the motherboard's socket fit the CPU, the motherboard's chipset must work optimally with the CPU.

9.3

Bus Speed

A bus is simply a circuit that connects one part of the motherboard to another. The more data a bus can handle at one time, the faster it allows information to travel. The speed of the bus, measured in megahertz (MHz), refers to how much data can move across the bus.

Bus speed usually refers to the speed of the front side bus (FSB), which connects the CPU to the northbridge. FSB speeds can range from 66 MHz to over 800 MHz. Since the CPU reaches the memory controller though the northbridge, FSB speed can dramatically affect a computer's performance.
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Here are some of the other busses found on a motherboard: The back side bus connects the CPU with the level 2 (L2) cache, also known as secondary or external cache. The processor determines the speed of the back side bus. The memory bus connects the northbridge to the memory. The IDE or ATA bus connects the southbridge to the disk drives. The AGP bus connects the video card to the memory and the CPU. The speed of the AGP bus is usually 66 MHz. The PCI bus connects PCI slots to the southbridge. On most systems, the speed of the PCI bus is 33 MHz. Also compatible with PCI is PCI Express, which is much faster than PCI but is still compatible with current software and operating systems. PCI Express is likely to replace both PCI and AGP busses.

The faster a computer's bus speed, the faster it will operate - to a point. A fast bus speed cannot make up for a slow processor or chipset.

9.4

Memory
You must have understood that the speed of the processor itself controls how quickly a computer thinks. The speed of the chipset and busses controls how quickly it can communicate with other parts of the computer. The speed of the RAM connection directly
184-pin DDR DIMM RAM

controls how fast the computer can access instructions and data, and therefore has a big effect on system

performance. A fast processor with slow RAM is going nowhere. The amount of memory available also controls how much data the computer can have readily available. RAM makes up the bulk of a computer's memory The general rule of thumb is the more RAM the computer has, the better it will work. The memory type commonly in use with the new PCs today is dual data rate (DDR) memory. This means that the memory can transmit data twice per cycle instead of once, which makes the memory faster. Also, most motherboards have space for multiple memory chips, and on newer motherboards, they often connect to the northbridge via a dual bus instead of a single bus. This further reduces the amount of time it takes for the processor to get information from the memory.

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A motherboard's memory slots directly affect what kind and how much memory is supported. Just like other components, the memory plugs into the slot via a series of pins. The memory module must have the right number of pins to fit into the slot on the motherboard.

9.5

Other Onboard Features

In the earliest days of motherboards, virtually everything other than the processor came on a card that plugged into the board. Now, motherboards feature a variety of onboard accessories such as LAN support, modems, video, sound support and RAID controllers. Motherboards with all the bells and whistles (onboard peripherals) are convenient and simple to install. There are motherboards that have everything you need to create a complete computer - all you do is stick the motherboard in a case and add a hard disk, a CD drive and a power supply. You have a completely operational computer on a single board.

For many average users, these built-in features provide ample support for video and sound. For avid gamers and people who do high-intensity graphic or computer-aided design (CAD) work, however, separate video cards provide much better performance.

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10 Microprocessor
Every computer that is operating today has a Microprocessor as its brain, whether it is a desktop machine, a server or a laptop. The microprocessor, in these machines, can be a Pentium, a K6, a PowerPC, a Sparc or any of the many other brands and types of microprocessors, but they all do approximately the same thing in approximately the same way.

10.1 Microprocessor History


A microprocessor -- also known as a CPU or central processing unit -- is a complete computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful -- all it could do was add and subtract, and it could
Intel 4004 chip

only do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip. The first microprocessor to make a real splash in the market was the Intel 8088, introduced in 1979 and incorporated into the IBM PC (which first appeared around 1982

10.2 Microprocessor Progression: Intel


The following table helps you to understand the differences between the different processors that Intel has introduced over the years. Name 8080 8088 80286 80386 80486 Pentium Pentium II Pentium III Pentium 4 Date Transistors Microns Clock speed 1974 1979 1982 1985 1989 1993 1997 1999 6,000 29,000 134,000 275,000 1,200,000 3,100,000 7,500,000 9,500,000 6 3 1.5 1.5 1 0.8 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.09 2 MHz 5 MHz 6 MHz 16 MHz 25 MHz 60 MHz 233 MHz 450 MHz 1.5 GHz 3.6 GHz Data width 8 bits 16 bits 8-bit bus 16 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 64-bit bus MIPS 0.64 0.33 1 5 20 100

32 bits 64-bit bus ~300 32 bits 64-bit bus ~510 32 bits 64-bit bus ~1,700 32 bits 64-bit bus ~7,000

2000 42,000,000

Pentium 4 "Prescott" 2004 125,000,000

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Information about this table: The date is the year that the processor was first introduced. Many processors are re-introduced at higher clock speeds for many years after the original release date. Transistors is the number of transistors on the chip. You can see that the number of transistors on a single chip has risen steadily over the years. Microns is the width, in microns, of the smallest wire on the chip. For comparison, a human hair is 100 microns thick. As the feature size on the chip goes down, the number of transistors rises. Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip can be clocked at. Clock speed will make more sense in the next section. Data Width is the width of the ALU. An 8-bit ALU can add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can manipulate 32-bit numbers. An 8-bit ALU would have to execute four instructions to add two 32-bit numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can do it in one instruction. In many cases, the external data bus is the same width as the ALU, but not always. The 8088 had a 16-bit ALU and an 8-bit bus, while the modern Pentiums fetch data 64 bits at a time for their 32-bit ALUs. MIPS stands for "millions of instructions per second" and is a rough measure of the performance of a CPU. Modern CPUs can do so many different things that MIPS ratings lose a lot of their meaning, but you can get a general sense of the relative power of the CPUs from this column. From this table it is clear that, in general, there is a relationship between clock speed and MIPS. The maximum clock speed is a function of the manufacturing process and delays within the chip. There is also a relationship between the number of transistors and MIPS. For example, the 8088 clocked at 5 MHz but only executed at 0.33 MIPS (about one instruction per 15 clock cycles). Modern processors can often execute at a rate of two instructions per clock cycle. That improvement is directly related to the number of transistors on the chip and will make more sense in the next section.

10.3 Inside a Microprocessor


A microprocessor executes a collection of machine instructions that tell the processor what to do. Based on the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things: Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical operations
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like

addition,

subtraction,

multiplication

and

division.

Modern
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microprocessors contain complete floating point processors that can perform extremely sophisticated operations on large floating point numbers. A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another. A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on those decisions. There may be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor does, but those are its three basic activities. This is about as simple as a microprocessor gets. This microprocessor has: An address bus (that may be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that sends an address to memory A data bus (that may be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that can send data to memory or receive data from memory An RD (read) and WR (write) line to tell the memory whether it wants to set or get the addressed location A clock line that lets a clock pulse sequence the processor A reset line that resets the program counter to zero (or whatever) and restarts execution

10.4 Microprocessor Performance


The number of transistors available has a huge effect on the performance of a processor. As seen earlier, a typical instruction in a processor like an 8088 took 15 clock cycles to execute. Because of the design of the multiplier, it took approximately 80 cycles just to do one 16-bit multiplication on the 8088. With more transistors, much more powerful multipliers capable of single-cycle speeds become possible. More transistors also allow for a technology called pipelining. In a pipelined architecture, instruction execution overlaps. So even though it might take five clock cycles to execute each instruction, there can be five instructions in various stages of execution simultaneously. That way it looks like one instruction completes every clock cycle. Many modern processors have multiple instruction decoders, each with its own pipeline. This allows for multiple instruction streams, which means that more than one instruction can complete during each clock cycle. This technique can be quite complex to implement, so it takes lots of transistors.

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10.5 Microprocessor Trends


The trend in processor design has primarily been toward full 32-bit ALUs with fast floating point processors built in and pipelined execution with multiple instruction streams. The newest thing in processor design is 64-bit ALUs, and people are expected to have these processors in their home PCs in the next decade. There has also been a tendency toward special instructions (like the MMX instructions) that make certain operations particularly efficient, and the addition of hardware virtual memory support and L1 caching on the processor chip. All of these trends push up the transistor count, leading to the multi-million transistor powerhouses available today. These processors can execute about one billion instructions per second!

10.6 64-bit Processors


Sixty-four-bit processors have been with us since 1992, and in the 21st century they have started to become mainstream. Both Intel and AMD have introduced 64-bit chips, and the Mac G5 sports a 64-bit processor. Sixty-four-bit processors have 64-bit ALUs, 64-bit registers, 64-bit buses and so on. One reason why the world needs 64-bit processors is because of their enlarged address spaces. Thirty-two-bit chips are often constrained to a maximum of 2 GB or 4 GB of RAM access. That sounds like a lot, given that most home computers currently use only 256 MB to 512 MB of RAM. However, a 4-GB limit can be a severe problem for server machines and machines running large databases. And even home machines will start bumping up against the 2 GB or 4 GB limit pretty soon if current trends continue. A 64-bit chip has none of these constraints because a 64-bit RAM address space is essentially infinite for the foreseeable future -- 2^64 bytes of RAM is something on the order of a billion gigabytes of RAM. With a 64-bit address bus and wide, high-speed data buses on the motherboard, 64-bit machines also offer faster I/O (input/output) speeds to things like hard disk drives and video cards. These features can greatly increase system

performance. Servers can definitely benefit from 64 bits, but what about normal users? Beyond the RAM solution, it is not clear that a 64-bit chip offers "normal users" any real, tangible benefits at the moment. They can process data (very complex data features lots of real numbers)
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faster. People doing video editing and people doing photographic editing on very large images benefit from this kind of computing power. High-end games will also benefit, once they are re-coded to take advantage of 64-bit features. But the average user who is reading e-mail, browsing the Web and editing Word documents is not really using the processor in that way.

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11 Random Access Memory


Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.

11.1 Dynamic RAM


Similar to a microprocessor, a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer memory, dynamic random access memory (DRAM), a transistor and a capacitor are paired to create a memory cell, which represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.

Explanation:

A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.

This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the memory.

Memory cells alone would be worthless without some way to get information in and out of them. So the memory cells have a whole support infrastructure of other specialized circuits. These circuits perform functions such as: Identifying each row and column (row address select and column address select) Keeping track of the refresh sequence (counter)
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Reading and restoring the signal from a cell (sense amplifier) Telling a cell whether it should take a charge or not (write enable) Other functions of the memory controller include a series of tasks that include identifying the type, speed and amount of memory and checking for errors.

11.2 Static RAM


Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive.

So static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. So static RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.

11.3 Memory Size


Memory chips are normally only available as part of a card called a module. You've probably seen memory listed as 8x32 or 4x16. These numbers represent the number of the chips multiplied by the capacity of each individual chip, which is measured in megabits (Mb), or one million bits. Take the result and divide it by eight to get the number of megabytes on that module. For example, 4x32 means that the module has four 32megabit chips. Multiply 4 by 32 and you get 128 megabits. Since we know that a byte has 8 bits, we need to divide our result of 128 by 8. Our result is 16 megabytes!

11.4 Memory Form Factor


The type of board and connector used for RAM in desktop computers has evolved over the past few years. The first types were proprietary, meaning that different computer manufacturers developed memory boards that would only work with their
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specific systems. Then came SIMM, which stands for single in-line memory module. This memory board used a 30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .75 inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm). In most computers, you had to install SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and speed. This is because the width of the bus is more than a single SIMM. For example, you would install two 8-megabyte (MB) SIMMs to get 16 megabytes total RAM. Each SIMM could send 8 bits of data at one time, while the system bus could handle 16 bits at a time. Later SIMM boards, slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm), used a 72-pin connector for increased bandwidth and allowed for up to 256 MB of RAM.

As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, the industry adopted a new standard in dual in-line memory module (DIMM). With a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1 inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in capacity from 8 MB to 1 GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs. Most PC memory modules and the modules for the Mac G5 systems operate at 2.5 volts, while older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3 volts. Another standard, Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), is comparable in size and pin configuration to DIMM but uses a special memory bus to greatly increase speed.

Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory modules, but several manufacturers use RAM based on the small outline dual in-line memory module (SODIMM) configuration. SODIMM cards are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and have 144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB per module. To conserve space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs instead of the traditional DIMMs. Sub-notebook computers use even smaller DIMMs, known as MicroDIMMs, which have either 144 pins or 172 pins.

11.5 Error Checking


Most memory available today is highly reliable. Most systems simply have the memory controller check for errors at start-up and rely on that. Memory chips with built-in errorchecking typically use a method known as parity to check for errors. Parity chips have an extra bit for every 8 bits of data. The way parity works is simple. Let's look at even parity first.

When the 8 bits in a byte receive data, the chip adds up the total number of 1s. If the total number of 1s is odd, the parity bit is set to 1. If the total is even, the parity bit is set to 0.
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When the data is read back out of the bits, the total is added up again and compared to the parity bit. If the total is odd and the parity bit is 1, then the data is assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. But if the total is odd and the parity bit is 0, the chip knows that there is an error somewhere in the 8 bits and dumps the data. Odd parity works the same way, but the parity bit is set to 1 when the total number of 1s in the byte are even.

The problem with parity is that it discovers errors but does nothing to correct them. If a byte of data does not match its parity bit, then the data are discarded and the system tries again. Computers in critical positions need a higher level of fault tolerance. High-end servers often have a form of error-checking known as error-correction code (ECC). Like parity, ECC uses additional bits to monitor the data in each byte. The difference is that ECC uses several bits for error checking -- how many depends on the width of the bus -instead of one. ECC memory uses a special algorithm not only to detect single bit errors, but actually correct them as well. ECC memory will also detect instances when more than one bit of data in a byte fails. Such failures are very rare, and they are not correctable, even with ECC. The majority of computers sold today use nonparity memory chips. These chips do not provide any type of built-in error checking, but instead rely on the memory controller for error detection.

11.6 Types of RAM


11.6.1 SRAM
Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.

11.6.2

DRAM
Dynamic random access memory has memory cells with a paired transistor and capacitor requiring constant refreshing.

11.6.3

FPM DRAM
Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176 MBps.

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11.6.4

EDO DRAM
Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.

11.6.5

SDRAM
Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly improve performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence. SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.

11.6.6

DDR SDRAM
Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that is has higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).

11.6.7

RDRAM
Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the previous DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus called the Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate much more heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are smaller versions of DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook computers.

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11.6.8

Credit Card Memory


Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM memory module that plugs into a special slot for use in notebook computers.

11.6.9

PCMCIA Memory Card


Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards of this type are not proprietary and should work with any notebook computer whose system bus matches the memory card's configuration.

11.6.10

CMOS RAM
CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by your computer and some other devices to remember things like hard disk settings. This memory uses a small battery to provide it with the power it needs to maintain the memory contents.

11.6.11

VRAM
VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory (MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators. The "multiport" part comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two independent access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats, many of which are proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a determining factor in the resolution and color depth of the display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific information such as 3-D geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to be expensive, so today, many graphics cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM) instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is cheaper.

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12 Graphic Card
The images on monitor are made of tiny dots called pixels. At most common resolution settings, a screen displays over a million pixels, and the computer has to decide what to do with every one in order to create an image. To do this, it needs a translator - something to take binary data from the CPU and
The graphics card creates a wire frame image, then fills it in and adds textures and shading.

turn it into a picture you can see. Unless a computer has graphics capability built into the motherboard, that translation takes place on the graphics card.

A graphics card's job is complex, but its principles and components are easy to understand. In this article, we will look at the basic parts of a video card and what they do.

12.1 Graphics Card Basics


Think of a computer as a company with its own art department. When people in the company want a piece of artwork, they send a request to the art department. The art department decides how to create the image and then puts it on paper. The end result is that someone's idea becomes an actual, viewable picture.

A graphics card works along the same principles. The CPU, working in conjunction with software applications, sends information about the image to the graphics card. The graphics card decides how to use the pixels on the screen to create the image. It then sends that information to the monitor through a cable.

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Creating an image out of binary data is a demanding process. To make a 3-D image, the graphics card first creates a wire frame out of straight lines. Then, it rasterizes the image (fills in the remaining pixels). It also adds lighting, texture and color. For fast-paced games, the computer has to go through this process about sixty times per second. Without a graphics card to perform the necessary calculations, the workload would be too much for the computer to handle.

The graphics card accomplishes this task using four main components: A motherboard connection for data and power A processor to decide what to do with each pixel on the screen Memory to hold information about each pixel and to temporarily store completed pictures A monitor connection so you can see the final result

12.2 Processor and Memory


Like a motherboard, a graphics card is a printed circuit board that houses a processor and RAM. It also has an input/output system (BIOS) chip, which stores the card's settings and performs diagnostics on the memory, input and output at startup. A graphics card's processor, called a graphics processing unit (GPU), is similar to a computer's CPU. A GPU, however, is designed specifically for performing the complex mathematical and geometric calculations that are necessary for graphics rendering. Some of the fastest GPUs have more transistors than the average CPU. A GPU produces a lot of heat, so it is usually located under a heat sink or a fan.

In addition to its processing power, a GPU uses special programming to help it analyze and use data. ATI and nVidia produce the vast majority of GPUs on the market, and both companies have developed their own enhancements for GPU performance. To improve image quality, the processors use:

Full scene anti aliasing (FSAA), which smoothes the edges of 3-D objects Anisotropic filtering (AF), which makes images look crisper Each company has also developed specific techniques to help the GPU apply colors, shading, textures and patterns.
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As the GPU creates images, it needs somewhere to hold information and completed pictures. It uses the card's RAM for this purpose, storing data about each pixel, its color and its location on the screen. Part of the RAM can also act as a frame buffer, meaning that it holds completed images until it is time to display them. Typically, video RAM operates at very high speeds and is dual ported, meaning that the system can read from it and write to it at the same time.

The RAM connects directly to the digital-to-analog converter, called the DAC. This converter, also called the RAMDAC, translates the image into an analog signal that the monitor can use. Some cards have multiple RAMDACs, which can improve performance and support more than one monitor.

12.3 Input and Output


Graphics cards connect to the computer through the motherboard. The motherboard supplies power to the card and lets it communicate with the CPU. Newer graphics cards often require more power than the motherboard can provide, so they also have a direct connection to the computer's power supply. Connections to the motherboard are usually through one of three interfaces:

Peripheral component interconnect (PCI) Advanced graphics port (AGP) PCI Express (PCIe)

PCI Express is the newest of the three and provides the fastest transfer rates between the graphics card and the motherboard. PCIe also supports the use of two graphics cards in the same computer. Most graphics cards have two monitor connections. Often, one is a DVI connector, which supports LCD screens, and the other is a VGA connector, which supports CRT screens. Some graphics cards have two DVI connectors instead. But that doesn't rule out using a CRT screen; CRT screens can connect to DVI ports through an adapter. Most people use only one of their two monitor connections. People who need to use two monitors can purchase a graphics card with dual head capability, which splits the
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display between the two screens. A computer with two dual head, PCIe-enabled video cards could theoretically support four monitors.

In addition to connections for the motherboard and monitor, some graphics cards have connections for:

TV display: TV-out or S-video Analog video cameras: ViVo or video in/video out Digital cameras: FireWire or USB Some cards also incorporate TV tuners.

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13 LCD Monitor
Liquid crystal display technology works by blocking light. Specifically, an LCD is made of two pieces of polarized glass (also called substrate) that contain a liquid crystal material between them. A backlight creates light that passes through the first substrate. At the same time, electrical currents cause the liquid crystal molecules to align to allow varying levels of light to pass through to the second substrate and create the colors and images that you see.

13.1 Active and Passive Matrix Displays


Most LCD displays use active matrix technology. A thin film transistor (TFT) arranges tiny transistors and capacitors in a matrix on the glass of the display. To address a particular pixel, the proper row is switched on, and then a charge is sent down the correct column. Since all of the other rows that the column intersects are turned off, only the capacitor at the designated pixel receives a charge. The capacitor is able to hold the charge until the next refresh cycle.

The other type of LCD technology is passive matrix. This type of LCD display uses a grid of conductive metal to charge each pixel. Although they are less expensive to produce, passive matrix monitors are rarely used today due to the technology's slow response time and imprecise voltage control compared to active matrix technology.

13.2 LCD Features and Attributes


To evaluate the specifications of LCD monitors, here are a few more things you need to know.

13.2.1

Native Resolution

Unlike CRT monitors, LCD monitors display information well at only the resolution they are designed for, which is known as the native resolution. Digital displays address each individual pixel using a fixed matrix of horizontal and vertical dots. If you change the
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resolution settings, the LCD scales the image and the quality suffers. Native resolutions are typically: 17 inch = 1024x768 19 inch = 1280x1024 20 inch = 1600x1200

13.2.2

Viewing Angle

When you look at an LCD monitor from an angle, the image can look dimmer or even disappear. Colors can also be misrepresented. To compensate for this problem, LCD monitor makers have designed wider viewing angles. (Do not confuse this with a widescreen display, which means the display is physically wider.) Manufacturers give a measure of viewing angle in degrees (a greater number of degrees is better). In general, look for between 120 and 170 degrees. Because manufacturers measure viewing angles differently, the best way to evaluate it is to test the display yourself. Check the angle from the top and bottom as well as the sides, bearing in mind how you will typically use the display.

13.2.3

Brightness or Luminance

This is a measurement of the amount of light the LCD monitor produces. It is given in nits or one candelas per square meter (cd/m2). One nit is equal to on cd/m2. Typical brightness ratings range from 250 to 350 cd/m2 for monitors that perform general-purpose tasks. For displaying movies, a brighter luminance rating such as 500 cd/m2 is desirable.

13.2.4

Contrast Ratio

The contrast ratio rates the degree of difference of an LCD monitor's ability to produce bright whites and the dark blacks. The figure is usually expressed as a ratio, for example, 500:1. Typically, contrast ratios range from 450:1 to 600:1, and they can be rated as high as 1000:1. Ratios more than 600:1, however, provide little improvement over lower ratios.

13.2.5

Response Rate

The response rate indicates how fast the monitor's pixels can change colors. Faster is better because it reduces the ghosting effect when an image moves, leaving a faint trial in such applications as videos or games.

13.2.6

Response Rate

Unlike CRT monitors, LCD monitors have much more flexibility for positioning the screen the way you want it. LCD monitors can swivel, tilt up and down, and even rotate from landscape (with the horizontal plane longer than the vertical plane) to portrait mode (with
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the vertical plane longer than the horizontal plane). In addition, because they are lightweight and thin, most LCD monitors have built-in brackets for wall or arm mounting.

Besides the basic features, some LCD monitors have other conveniences such as integrated speakers, built-in Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports and anti-theft locks.

13.3 LCD Terms


Bezel - This is the metal or plastic frame surrounding the display screen. On LCD displays, the bezel is typically very narrow. Contrast ratio - The difference in light intensity between white and black on an LCD display is called contrast ratio. The higher the contrast ratio, the easier it is to see details. Ghosting - An effect of slower response times that cause blurring of images on an LCD monitor, it's also known as latency. The effect is caused by voltage temporarily leaking from energized elements to neighboring, non-energized elements on the display. Luminance - Also known as brightness, it is the level of light emitted by an LCD display. Luminance is measured in nits or candelas per square meter (cd/m2). One nit is equal to one cd/m2. Native resolution - This actual measurement of an LCD display, in pixels, is given in horizontal by vertical order. Response time - The speed at which the monitor's pixels can change colors is called response time. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). Stuck pixels - A pixel that is stuck either 'on' or 'off', meaning that it is always illuminated, unlit, or stuck on one color regardless of the image the LCD monitor displays can also be called a dead pixel. VESA mount - With this, you can mount a monitor on a desk or wall. It meets recommendations of the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA). Viewing angle - It's the degree of angle at which you can view the screen from the sides (horizontal angle) and top/bottom (vertical angle) and continue to see clearly defined images and accurate colors.

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14 CRT Monitor
A CRT monitor contains millions of tiny red, green, and blue phosphor dots that glow when struck by an electron beam that travels across the screen to create a visible image. The illustration on left shows how this works inside a CRT.

The terms anode and cathode are used in electronics as synonyms for positive and negative terminals. For example, you could refer to the positive terminal of a battery as the anode and the negative terminal as the cathode. In a cathode ray tube, the "cathode" is a heated filament. The heated filament is in a vacuum created inside a glass "tube." The "ray" is a stream of electrons generated by an electron gun that naturally pour off a heated cathode into the vacuum. Electrons are negative. The anode is positive, so it attracts the electrons pouring off the cathode. This screen is coated with phosphor, an organic material that glows when struck by the electron beam.

There are three ways to filter the electron beam in order to obtain the correct image on the monitor screen: shadow mask, aperture grill and slot mask. These technologies also impact the sharpness of the monitor's display. Let's take a closer look at these now. CRT Features and Attributes

To evaluate the specifications of CRT monitors, here are a few more things you need to know:

1. Shadow-mask A shadow mask is a thin metal screen filled with very small holes. Three electron beams pass through the holes to focus on a single point on a CRT displays' phosphor surface. The shadow mask helps to control the electron beams so that the beams strike the correct phosphor at just the right intensity to create the desired colors and image on the display. The unwanted beams are blocked or "shadowed."

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2. Aperture-grill Monitors based on the Trinitron technology, which was pioneered by Sony, use an aperture-grill instead of a shadow-mask type of tube. The aperture grill consists of tiny vertical wires. Electron beams pass through the aperture grill to illuminate the phosphor on the faceplate. Most aperture-grill monitors have a flat faceplate and tend to represent a less distorted image over the entire surface of the display than the curved faceplate of a shadow-mask CRT. However, aperture-grill displays are normally more expensive.

3. Slot-mask A less-common type of CRT display, a slot-mask tube uses a combination of the shadow-mask and aperture-grill technologies. Rather than the round perforations found in shadow-mask CRT displays, a slot-mask display uses vertically aligned slots. The design creates more brightness through increased electron

transmissions combined with the arrangement of the phosphor dots.

14.1 Dot pitch

Dot pitch is an indicator of the sharpness of the displayed image. It is measured in millimeters (mm), and a smaller number means a sharper image. How you measure the dot pitch depends on the technology used:

In a shadow-mask CRT monitor, you measure dot pitch as the diagonal distance between two like-colored phosphors. Some manufacturers may also cite a horizontal dot pitch, which is the distance between two-like colored phosphors horizontally.

The dot pitch of an aperture-grill monitor is measured by the horizontal distance between two like-colored phosphors. It is also sometimes are called stripe pitch.

The smaller and closer the dots are to one another, the more realistic and detailed the picture appears. When the dots are farther apart, they become noticeable and make the
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image look grainier. Unfortunately, manufacturers are not always upfront about dot pitch measurements, and you cannot necessarily compare shadow-mask and aperture-grill CRT types, due to the difference in horizontal and vertical measurements.

The dot pitch translates directly to the resolution on the screen. If you were to put a ruler up to the glass and measure an inch, you would see a certain number of dots, depending on the dot pitch. Here is a table that shows the number of dots per square centimeter and per square inch in each of these common dot pitches:

Approx. number of Dot Pitch .25 mm .26 mm .27 mm .28 mm .31 mm .51 mm 1 mm pixels/cm2 1,600 1,444 1,369 1,225 1,024 361 100

Approx. number of pixels/in2 10,000 9,025 8,556 7,656 6,400 2,256 625

14.2 Refresh Rate


In monitors based on CRT technology, the refresh rate is the number of times that the image on the display is drawn each second. If your CRT monitor has a refresh rate of 72 Hertz (Hz), then it cycles through all the pixels from top to bottom 72 times a second. Refresh rates are very important because they control flicker, and you want the refresh rate as high as possible. Too few cycles per second and you will notice a flickering, which can lead to headaches and eye strain.

Because your monitor's refresh rate depends on the number of rows it has to scan, it limits the maximum possible resolution. Most monitors support multiple refresh rates. Keep in mind that there is a tradeoff between flicker and resolution, and then pick what works best
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for you. This is especially important with larger monitors where flicker is more noticeable. Recommendations for refresh rate and resolution include 1280x1024 at 85 Hertz or 1600x1200 at 75 Hertz.

14.3 Multiple Resolutions


Because a CRT uses electron beams to create images on a phosphor screen, it supports the resolution that matches its physical dot (pixel) size as well as several lesser resolutions. For example, a display with a physical grid of 1280 rows by 1024 columns can obviously support a maximum resolution of 1280x1024 pixels. It also supports lower resolutions such as 1024x768, 800x600, and 640x480. As noted previously, an LCD monitor works well only at its native resolution.

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15 LCD vs. CRT


If you are looking for a new display, you should consider the differences between CRT and LCD monitors. Choose the type of monitor that best serves your specific needs, the typical applications you use, and your budget.

15.1 Advantages of LCD Monitors


1. Require less power - Power consumption varies greatly with different technologies. CRT displays are somewhat power-hungry, at about 100 watts for a typical 19-inch display. The average is about 45 watts for a 19-inch LCD display. LCDs also produce less heat. 2. Smaller and weigh less - An LCD monitor is significantly thinner and lighter than a CRT monitor, typically weighing less than half as much. In addition, you can mount an LCD on an arm or a wall, which also takes up less desktop space. 3. More adjustable - LCD displays are much more adjustable than CRT displays. With LCDs, you can adjust the tilt, height, swivel, and orientation from horizontal to vertical mode. As noted previously, you can also mount them on the wall or on an arm. 4. Less eye strain - Because LCD displays turn each pixel off individually, they do not produce a flicker like CRT displays do. In addition, LCD displays do a better job of displaying text compared with CRT displays.

15.2 Advantages of CRT Monitors


1. Less expensive - Although LCD monitor prices have decreased, comparable CRT displays still cost less. 2. Better color representation - CRT displays have historically represented colors and different gradations of color more accurately than LCD displays. However, LCD displays are gaining ground in this area, especially with higher-end models that include color-calibration technology. 3. More responsive - Historically, CRT monitors have had fewer problems with ghosting and blurring because they redrew the screen image faster than LCD monitors. Again, LCD manufacturers are improving on this with displays that have faster response times than they did in the past.

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4. Multiple resolutions - If you need to change your display's resolution for different applications, you are better off with a CRT monitor because LCD monitors don't handle multiple resolutions as well. 5. More rugged - Although they are bigger and heavier than LCD displays, CRT displays are also less fragile and harder to damage. 6. So now that you know about LCD and CRT monitors, let's talk about how you can use two monitors at once. They say, "Two heads are better than one." Maybe the same is true of monitors!

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16 Hard Drive
Nearly every desktop computer and server in use today contains one or more hard-disk drives. Every mainframe and supercomputer is normally connected to hundreds of them. These billions of hard disks do one thing well -- they store changing digital information in a relatively permanent form. They give computers the ability to remember things when the power goes out.

16.1 Hard Disk Basics


Hard disks were invented in the 1950s. They started as large disks up to 20 inches in diameter holding just a few megabytes. They were originally called "fixed disks" or "Winchesters" (a code name used for a popular IBM product). They later became known as "hard disks" to distinguish them from "floppy disks." Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium, as opposed to the flexible plastic film found in tapes and floppies.

At the simplest level, a hard disk is not that different from a cassette tape. Both hard disks and cassette tapes use the same magnetic recording techniques. Hard disks and cassette tapes also share the major benefits of magnetic storage -- the magnetic medium can be easily erased and rewritten, and it will "remember" the magnetic flux patterns stored onto the medium for many years.

16.2 Capacity and Performance


A typical desktop machine will have a hard disk with a capacity of between 10 and 40 gigabytes. Data is stored onto the disk in the form of files. A file is simply a named collection of bytes. The bytes might be the ASCII codes for the characters of a text file, or they could be the instructions of a software application for the computer to execute, or they could be the records of a data base, or they could be the pixel colors for a GIF image. No matter what it contains, however, a file is simply a string of bytes. When a program running on the computer requests a file, the hard disk retrieves its bytes and sends them to the CPU one at a time.

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There are two ways to measure the performance of a hard disk: Data rate - The data rate is the number of bytes per second that the drive can deliver to the CPU. Rates between 5 and 40 megabytes per second are common. Seek time - The seek time is the amount of time between when the CPU requests a file and when the first byte of the file is sent to the CPU. Times between 10 and 20 milliseconds are common. The other important parameter is the capacity of the drive, which is the number of bytes it can hold.

16.3 Inside: Electronics Board


The best way to understand how a hard disk works is to take a look inside. It is a sealed aluminum box with controller electronics attached to one side. The electronics control the read/write mechanism and the motor that spins the platters. The electronics also assemble the magnetic domains on the drive into bytes (reading) and turn bytes into magnetic domains (writing).

16.4 Inside: Beneath the Board


Underneath the board are the connections for the motor that spins the platters, as well as a highly-filtered vent hole that lets internal and external air pressures equalize:

Removing the cover from the drive reveals an extremely simple but very precise interior:

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In this picture you can see: The platters - These typically spin at 3,600 or 7,200 rpm when the drive is operating. These platters are manufactured to amazing tolerances and are mirror-smooth (as you can see in this interesting self-portrait of the author... no easy way to avoid that!). The arm - This holds the read/write heads and is controlled by the mechanism in the upper-left corner. The arm is able to move the heads from the hub to the edge of the drive. The arm and its movement mechanism are extremely light and fast. The arm on a typical hard-disk drive can move from hub to edge and back up to 50 times per second -- it is an amazing thing to watch!

16.5 Inside: Platters and Heads


In order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard disks have multiple platters. This drive has three platters and six read/write heads:

The mechanism that moves the arms on a hard disk has to be incredibly fast and precise. It can be constructed using a high-speed linear motor.

Many drives use a "voice coil" approach -- the same technique used to move the cone of a speaker on your stereo is used to move the arm.

16.6 Storing the Data


Data is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors and tracks. Tracks are concentric circles, and sectors are pie-shaped wedges on a track, like this: A typical track is shown in yellow; a typical sector is shown in blue. A sector contains a fixed number of bytes -- for example, 256 or 512. Either at the drive or the operating system level, sectors are often grouped together into clusters.

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The process of low-level formatting a drive establishes the tracks and sectors on the platter. The starting and ending points of each sector are written onto the platter. This process prepares the drive to hold blocks of bytes. High-level formatting then writes the file-storage structures, like the file-allocation table, into the sectors. This process prepares the drive to hold files.

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17 Sound Card
Before the invention of the sound card, a PC could make one sound a beep. Although the computer could change the beep's frequency and duration, it couldn't change the volume or create other sounds. At first, the beep acted primarily as a signal or a warning. Later, developers created music for the earliest PC games using beeps of different pitches and lengths. Fortunately, computers' sound capabilities increased greatly in the 1980s, when several manufacturers introduced add-on cards dedicated to controlling sound. Now, a computer with a sound card can do far more than just beep. It can produce 3-D audio for games or surround sound playback for DVDs. It can also capture and record sound from external sources.

17.1 Analog vs. Digital


Sounds and computer data are fundamentally different. Sounds are analog - they are made of waves that travel through matter. People hear sounds when these waves physically vibrate their eardrums. Computers, however, communicate digitally, using electrical impulses that represent 0s and 1s. Like a graphics card, a sound card translates between a computer's digital information and the outside world's analog information. The most basic sound card is a printed circuit board that uses four components to translate analog and digital information: An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) An ISA or PCI interface to connect the card to the motherboard Input and output connections for a microphone and speakers Instead of separate ADCs and DACs, some sound cards use a coder/decoder chip, also called a CODEC, which performs both functions.

17.2 Other Sound Card Components


In addition to the basic components needed for sound processing, many sound cards include additional hardware or input/output connections, including:
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Digital Signal Processor (DSP): Like a graphics processing unit (GPU), a DSP is a specialized microprocessor. It takes some of the workload off of the computer's CPU by performing calculations for analog and digital conversion. DSPs can process multiple sounds, or channels, simultaneously. Sound cards that do not have their own DSP use the CPU for processing. Memory: As with a graphics card, a sound card can use its own memory to provide faster data processing. Input and Output Connections: Most sound cards have, at the very minimum, connections for a microphone and speakers. Some include so many input and output connections that they have a breakout box, which often mounts in one of the drive bays, to house them. These connections include:
o Multiple speaker connections for 3-D and surround sound o Sony/Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF), a file transfer protocol for audio data. It

uses either coaxial or optical connections for input to and output from the sound card.
o Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), used to connect synthesizers or

other electronic instruments to their computers.


o FireWire and USB connections, which connect digital audio or video recorders

to the sound card

17.3 Other Options for Sound Control


Not every computer has a sound card. Some motherboards feature integrated audio support instead. A motherboard that has its own DSP can process multiple data streams. It may also support 3-D positional and Dolby surround sound. However, in spite of these features, most reviewers agree that separate sound cards provide better audio quality. Laptops usually have integrated sound capabilities on their motherboards or small sound cards. However, space and temperature control considerations make top-of-the-line internal cards impractical. So, laptop users can purchase external sound controllers, which use USB or FireWire connections. These external modules can significantly improve laptop sound quality.

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18 Compact Disc
CDs and DVDs are everywhere these days. Whether they are used to hold music, data or computer software, they have become the standard medium for distributing large quantities of information in a reliable package. Compact discs are so easy and cheap to produce that America Online sends out millions of them every year to entice new users. And if you have a computer and CD-R drive, you can create your own CDs, including any information you want.

18.1 CD Player Components


The CD player has the job of finding and reading the data stored as bumps on the CD. Considering how small the bumps are, the CD player is an exceptionally precise piece of equipment. The drive consists of three fundamental components: A drive motor spins the disc. This drive motor is precisely controlled to rotate between 200 and 500 rpm depending on which track is being read. A laser and a lens system focus in on and read the bumps. A tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly so that the laser's beam can follow the spiral track. The tracking system has to be able to move the laser at micron resolutions.

Inside a CD player

18.2 What the CD Player Does: Laser Focus


Inside the CD player, there is a good bit of computer technology involved in forming the data into understandable data blocks and sending them either to the DAC (in the case of an audio CD) or to the computer (in the case of a CD-ROM drive). The fundamental job of the CD player is to focus the laser on the track of bumps. The laser beam passes through the polycarbonate layer, reflects off the aluminum layer and hits an opto-electronic device that detects changes in light. The bumps reflect light differently than the
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"lands" (the rest of the aluminum layer), and the opto-electronic sensor detects that change in reflectivity. The electronics in the drive interpret the changes in reflectivity in order to read the bits that make up the bytes.

18.3 What the CD Player Does: Tracking


The hardest part is keeping the laser beam centered on the data track. This centering is the job of the tracking system. The tracking system, as it plays the CD, has to continually move the laser outward. As the laser moves outward from the center of the disc, the bumps move past the laser faster -- this happens because the linear, or tangential, speed of the bumps is equal to the radius times the speed at which the disc is revolving (rpm). Therefore, as the laser moves outward, the spindle motor must slow the speed of the CD. That way, the bumps travel past the laser at a constant speed, and the data comes off the disc at a constant rate.

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19 Keyboard
When you look at all the extras and options that are available for computer keyboards, it can be hard to believe that their original design came from mechanical typewriters that didn't even use electricity. new

19.1 Keyboard Basics


A keyboard's primary function is to act as an input device. Using a keyboard, a person can type a document, use keystroke shortcuts, access menus, play games and perform a variety of other tasks. Keyboards can have different keys depending on the manufacturer, the operating system they're designed for, and whether they are attached to a desktop computer or part of a laptop. But for the most part, these keys, also called keycaps, are the same size and shape from keyboard to keyboard. They're also placed at a similar distance from one another in a similar pattern, no matter what language or alphabet the keys represent. Most keyboards have between 80 and 110 keys, including: Typing keys A numeric keypad Function keys Control keys

19.1.1

Typing Keys

The typing keys include the letters of the alphabet, generally laid out in the same pattern used for typewriters. According to legend, this layout, known as QWERTY for its first six letters, helped keep mechanical typewriters' metal arms from colliding and jamming as people typed. Keyboards can also use a variety of other typing key arrangements. The most widely known is Dvorak, named for its creator, August Dvorak. The Dvorak layout places all of the vowels on the left side of the keyboard and the most common consonants on the right. Other layouts include ABCDE, XPeRT, QWERTZ and AZERTY. Each is named for the first keys in the pattern. The QWERTZ and AZERTY arrangements are commonly used in Europe.

19.1.2

Numeric Keypad

The numeric keypad is a more recent addition to the computer keyboard. As the use of computers in business environments increased, so did the need for speedy data entry.

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Since a large part of the data was numbers, a set of 17 keys, arranged in the same configuration found on adding machines and calculators, was added to the keyboard.

19.1.3

Function & Control Keys


In 1986, IBM further extended the basic keyboard with the addition of function and control keys. Applications and operating systems can assign specific commands to the function keys. Control keys provide cursor and screen control. Four arrow keys arranged in an inverted T formation between the typing keys and numeric keypad move the

cursor on the screen in small increments. Other common control keys include: Home End Insert Delete Page Up Page Down Control (Ctrl) Alternate (Alt) Escape (Esc) Function Keys (F1 F12) The Windows keyboard adds some extra control keys: two Windows or Start keys, and an Application key. Apple keyboards, on the other hand, have Command (also known as "Apple") keys.

19.2 Inside the Keyboard


A keyboard is a lot like a miniature computer. It has its own processor and circuitry that carries information to and from that processor. A large part of this circuitry makes up the key matrix. The key matrix is a grid of circuits underneath the keys. In all keyboards, each circuit is broken at a point below each key. When you press a key, it presses a switch, completing the circuit and allowing a tiny amount of current to flow through. The
The microprocessor and controller circuitry of a keyboard

mechanical action of the switch causes some vibration, called bounce, which the processor filters out. If you press and hold a

key, the processor recognizes it as the equivalent of pressing a key repeatedly.


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When the processor finds a circuit that is closed, it compares the location of that circuit on the key matrix to the character map in its read-only memory (ROM). A character map is basically a comparison chart or lookup table. It tells the processor the position of each key in the matrix and what each keystroke or combination of keystrokes represents. For example, the character map lets the processor know that pressing the a key by itself corresponds to a small letter "a," but the Shift and a keys pressed together correspond to a capital "A."

19.3 From the Keyboard to the Computer


As you type, the processor in the keyboard analyzes the key matrix and determines what characters to send to the computer. It maintains these characters in its memory buffer and then sends the data.

Many keyboards connect to the computer through a cable with a PS/2 or USB (Universal Serial Bus) connector. Laptops use internal connectors. Regardless of which type of connector is used, the cable must carry power to the keyboard, and it must carry signals from the keyboard back to the computer.

Wireless keyboards, on the other hand, connect to the computer through infrared (IR), radio frequency (RF) or Bluetooth connections. IR and RF connections are similar to what you'd find in a remote control. Regardless of which sort of signal they use, wireless keyboards require a receiver, either built in or plugged in to the USB port, to communicate with the computer. Since they don't have a physical connection to the computer, wireless keyboards have an AC power connection or use batteries for power.

Whether it's through a cable or wireless, the signal from the keyboard is monitored by the computer's keyboard controller. This is an integrated circuit (IC) that processes all of the data that comes from the keyboard and forwards it to the operating system. When the operating system (OS) is notified that there is data from the keyboard, it checks to see if the keyboard data is a system level command. A good example of this is Ctrl-Alt-Delete on a Windows computer, which reboots the system. Then, the OS passes the keyboard data on to the current application.

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The application determines whether the keyboard data is a command, like Alt-f, which opens the File menu in a Windows application. If the data is not a command, the application accepts it as content, which can be anything from typing a document to entering a URL to performing a calculation. If the current application does not accept keyboard data, it simply ignores the information. This whole process, from pressing the key to entering content into an application, happens almost instantaneously.

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20 Mouse
Mice first broke onto the public stage with the introduction of the Apple Macintosh in 1984, and since then they have helped to completely redefine the way we use computers. Every day of your computing life, you reach out for your mouse whenever you want to move your cursor or activate something. Your mouse senses your motion and your clicks and sends them to the computer so it can respond appropriately.

20.1 Inside a Mouse


The main goal of any mouse is to translate the motion of your hand into signals that the computer can use. Let's take a look inside a track-ball mouse to see how it works:

A ball inside the mouse touches the desktop and rolls when the mouse moves.

Two rollers inside the mouse touch the ball. One of the rollers is oriented so that it detects motion in the X direction, and the other is oriented 90 degrees to the first roller so it detects motion in the Y direction. When the ball rotates, one or both of these rollers rotate as well. The following image shows the two white rollers on this mouse:

The rollers each connect to a shaft, and the shaft spins a disk with holes in it. When a roller rolls, its shaft and disk spin. The following image shows the disk:

On either side of the disk there is an infrared LED and an infrared sensor. The holes in the disk break the beam of light coming from the LED so that the infrared sensor sees pulses of light. The rate of the pulsing is directly related to the speed of the mouse and the distance it travels.

An on-board processor chip reads the pulses from the infrared sensors and turns them into binary data that the computer can understand. The chip sends the binary data to the computer through
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the mouse's cord. In this opto-mechanical arrangement, the disk moves mechanically, and an optical system counts pulses of light. On this mouse, the ball is 21 mm in diameter. The roller is 7 mm in diameter. The encoding disk has 36 holes. So if the mouse moves 25.4 mm (1 inch), the encoder chip detects 41 pulses of light.

Each encoder disk has two infrared LEDs and two infrared sensors, one on each side of the disk. This arrangement allows the processor to detect the disk's direction of rotation. There is a piece of plastic with a small, precisely located hole that sits between the encoder disk and each infrared sensor. It is visible in the photo on right:

This piece of plastic provides a window through which the infrared sensor can "see." The window on one side of the disk is located slightly higher than it is on the other -- one-half the height of one of the holes in the encoder disk, to be exact. That difference causes the two infrared sensors to see pulses of light at slightly different times. There are times when one of the sensors will see a pulse of light when the other does not, and vice versa.

20.2 Data Interface


Most mice on the market today use a USB connector to attach to your computer. USB is a standard way to connect all kinds of peripherals to your computer, including printers, digital cameras, keyboards and mice. Some older mice, many of which are still in use today, have a PS/2 type connector.

Instead of a PS/2 connector, a few other older mice use a serial type of connector to attach to a computer.

20.3 Optical Mice


Developed by Agilent Technologies and introduced to the world in late 1999, the optical mouse actually uses a tiny camera to take thousands of pictures every second. Able to work on almost any surface without a mouse pad, most optical mice use a small, red light-emitting diode (LED) that bounces light off that surface onto a complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor. In addition
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to LEDs, a recent innovation are laser-based optical mice that detect more surface details compared to LED technology. This results in the ability to use a laser-based optical mouse on even more surfaces than an LED mouse. Here's how the sensor and other parts of an optical mouse work together: The CMOS sensor sends each image to a digital signal processor (DSP) for analysis. The DSP detects patterns in the images and examines how the patterns have moved since the previous image. Based on the change in patterns over a sequence of images, the DSP determines how far the mouse has moved and sends the corresponding coordinates to the computer. The computer moves the cursor on the screen based on the coordinates received from the mouse. This happens hundreds of times each second, making the cursor appear to move very smoothly.

Optical mice have several benefits over track-ball mice: No moving parts means less wear and a lower chance of failure. There's no way for dirt to get inside the mouse and interfere with the tracking sensors. Increased tracking resolution means a smoother response. They don't require a special surface, such as a mouse pad.

20.3.1

Accuracy

A number of factors affect the accuracy of an optical mouse. One of the most important aspects is resolution. The resolution is the number of pixels per inch that the optical sensor and focusing lens "see" when you move the mouse. Resolution is expressed as dots per inch (dpi). The higher the resolution, the more sensitive the mouse is and the less you need to move it to obtain a response.

Most mice have a resolution of 400 or 800 dpi. However, mice designed for playing electronic games can offer as much as 1600 dpi resolution. Some gaming mice also allow you to decrease the dpi on the fly to make the mouse less sensitive in situations when you need to make smaller, slower movements. Historically, corded mice have been more responsive than wireless mice. This fact is changing, however, with the advent of improvements in wireless technologies and optical sensors. Other factors that affect quality include:
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Size of the optical sensor -- larger is generally better, assuming the other mouse components can handle the larger size. Sizes range from 16 x 16 pixels to 30 x 30 pixels. Refresh rate -- it is how often the sensor samples images as you move the mouse. Faster is generally better, assuming the other mouse components can process them. Rates range from 1500 to 6000 samples per second.

Image processing rate -- is a combination of the size of the optical sensor and the refresh rate. Again, faster is better and rates range from 0.486 to 5.8 megapixels per second.

Maximum speed -- is the maximum speed that you can move the mouse and obtain accurate tracking. Faster is better and rates range from 16 to 40 inches per second.

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21 Floppy Disk & Drive


A floppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small, circular piece of metal-coated plastic similar to audio cassette tape. In this article, you will learn more about what is inside a floppy disk drive and how it works. You will also find out some cool facts about FDDs.

21.1 History of the Floppy Disk Drive


The floppy disk drive (FDD) was invented at IBM by Alan Shugart in 1967. The first floppy drives used an 8-inch disk, which evolved into the 5.25-inch disk that was used on the first IBM Personal Computer in August 1981. The 5.25-inch disk held 360 kilobytes compared to the 1.44 megabyte capacity of today's 3.5-inch diskette. Parts of a Floppy Disk Drive

21.2 The Disk


A floppy disk is a lot like a cassette tape: Both use a thin plastic base material coated with iron oxide. This oxide is a ferromagnetic material, meaning that if you expose it to a magnetic field it is permanently magnetized by the field. Both can record information instantly. Both can be erased and reused many times. Both are very inexpensive and easy to use. If you have ever used an audio cassette, you know that it has one big disadvantage -- it is a sequential device. The tape has a beginning and an end, and to move the tape to another song later in the sequence of songs on the tape you have to use the fast forward and rewind buttons to find the start of the song, since the tape heads are stationary. For a long audio cassette tape it can take a minute or two to rewind the whole tape, making it hard to find a song in the middle of the tape. A floppy disk, like a cassette tape, is made from a thin piece of plastic coated with a magnetic material on both sides. However, it is shaped like a disk rather than a long thin ribbon. The tracks are arranged in concentric rings so that the software can jump from "file 1" to "file 19" without having to fast forward through files 2-18. The diskette spins like a record and the heads move to the correct track, providing what is known as direct access storage.

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21.3 The Drive


The major parts of a FDD include:

Read/Write Heads: Located on both sides of a diskette, they move together on the same assembly. The heads are not directly opposite each other in an effort to prevent interaction between write operations on each of the two media surfaces. The same head is used for reading and writing, while a second, wider head is used for erasing a track just prior to it being written. This allows the data to be written on a wider "clean slate," without interfering with the analog data on an adjacent track.

Drive Motor: A very small spindle motor engages the metal hub at the center of the diskette, spinning it at either 300 or 360 rotations per minute (RPM).

Stepper Motor: This motor makes a precise number of stepped revolutions to move the read/write head assembly to the proper track position. The read/write head assembly is fastened to the stepper motor shaft.

Mechanical Frame: A system of levers that opens the little protective window on the diskette to allow the read/write heads to touch the dual-sided diskette media. An external button allows the diskette to be ejected, at which point the spring-loaded protective window on the diskette closes.

Circuit Board: Contains all of the electronics to handle the data read from or written to the diskette. It also controls the stepper-motor control circuits used to move the read/write heads to each track, as well as the movement of the read/write heads toward the diskette surface. The read/write heads do not touch the diskette media when the heads are traveling between tracks. Electronic optics check for the presence of an opening in the lower corner of a 3.5-inch diskette (or a notch in the side of a 5.25-inch diskette) to see if the user wants to prevent data from being written on it.

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22 Un-Interruptible Power Supply


What your computer expects to get from the power grid is 220-volt AC power oscillating at 50 Hertz. A computer can tolerate slight differences from this specification, but a significant deviation will cause the computer's power supply to fail. A UPS generally protects a computer against four different power problems: 1. Voltage surges and spikes - Times when the voltage on the line is greater than it should be 2. Voltage sags - Times when the voltage on the line is less than it should be 3. Total power failure - Times when a line goes down or a fuse blows somewhere on the grid or in the building 4. Frequency differences - Times when the power is oscillating at something other than 60 Hertz

There are two common systems in use today: 1. Standby UPS 2. Continuous UPS

22.1 Standby UPS


A standby UPS runs the computer off of the normal utility power until it detects a problem. At that point, it very quickly (in five milliseconds or less) turns on a power inverter and runs the computer off of the UPS's battery. A power inverter simply turns the DC power delivered by the battery into 220-volt, 50-Hertz AC power.

22.2 Continuous UPS


In a continuous UPS, the computer is always running off of battery power and the battery is continuously being recharged. You could fairly easily build a continuous UPS yourself with a largish battery charger, a battery and a power inverter. The battery charger continuously produces DC power, which the inverter continuously turns back into 220-volt AC power. If the power fails, the battery provides power to the inverter. There is no switchover time in a continuous UPS. This setup provides a very stable source of power.

Standby UPS systems are far more common for home or small-business use because they tend to cost about half as much as a continuous system. Continuous systems provide extremely clean, stable power, so they tend to be used in server rooms and mission critical applications.

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23 PC Power Supply
If there is any one component that is absolutely vital to the operation of a computer, it is the power supply. Without it, a computer is just a static box full of plastic and metal. The power supply converts the alternating current (AC) line from your home to the direct current (DC) needed by the personal computer.

23.1 Power Supply


In a personal computer (PC), the power supply is the metal box usually found in a corner or at the top of the case. The power supply is visible from the back of many systems because it contains the power-cord receptacle and the cooling fan. Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to convert the AC input to lower DC voltages. The typical voltages supplied are: 3.3 volts 5 volts 12 volts The 3.3- and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to run motors in disk drives and fans. The main specification of a power supply is in watts. A watt is the product of the voltage in volts and the current in amperes or amps.

Today you turn on the power with a little push button, and you turn off the machine with a menu option. These capabilities were added to standard power supplies several years ago. The operating system can send a signal to the power supply, telling it to turn off. The push button sends a 5-volt signal to the power supply to tell it when to turn on. The power supply also has a circuit that supplies 5 volts, called VSB for "standby voltage" even when it is officially "off", so that the button can work.

23.2 Switcher Technology


Prior to 1980 or so, power supplies tended to be heavy and bulky. They used large, heavy transformers and huge capacitors to convert line voltage at 220 volts and 50 hertz into 5 volts and 12 volts DC.

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The switching power supplies used today are much smaller and lighter. They convert the 50-Hertz (Hz, or cycles per second) current to a much higher frequency, meaning more cycles per second. This conversion enables a small, lightweight transformer in the power supply to do the actual voltage step-down from 220 volts (or 110 in certain countries) to the voltage needed by the particular computer component. The higher-frequency AC current provided by a switcher supply is also easier to rectify and filter compared to the original 50-Hz AC line voltage, reducing the variances in voltage for the sensitive electronic components in the computer. A switcher power supply draws only the power it needs from the AC line. The typical voltages and current provided by a power supply are shown on the label on a power supply.

Switcher technology is also used to make AC from DC, as found in many of the automobile power inverters used to run AC appliances in an automobile and in uninterruptible power supplies. Switcher technology in automotive power inverters changes the direct current from the auto battery into alternating current. The transformer uses alternating current to make the transformer in the inverter step the voltage up to that of household appliances (120 VAC).

23.3 Power Supply Standardization


Over time, there have been at least six different standard power supplies for personal computers. Recently, the industry has settled on using ATX-based power supplies. ATX is an industry specification that means the power supply has the physical characteristics to fit a standard ATX case and the electrical characteristics to work with an ATX motherboard. PC power-supply cables use standardized, keyed connectors that make it difficult to connect the wrong ones. Also, fan manufacturers often use the same connectors as the power cables for disk drives, allowing a fan to easily obtain the 12 volts it needs. Colorcoded wires and industry standard connectors make it possible for the consumer to have many choices for a replacement power supply.

23.4 Advanced Power Management


Advanced Power Management (APM) offers a set of five different states that your system can be in. It was developed by Microsoft and Intel for PC users who wish to conserve
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power. Each system component, including the operating system, basic input/output system (BIOS), motherboard and attached devices all need to be APM-compliant to be able to use this feature. Should you wish to disable APM because you suspect it is using up system resources or causing a conflict, the best way to do this is in the BIOS. That way, the operating system won't try to reinstall it, which could happen if it were disabled only in the software.

23.5 Power Supply Wattage


A 400-watt switching power supply will not necessarily use more power than a 250-watt supply. A larger supply may be needed if you use every available slot on the motherboard or every available drive bay in the personal computer case. It is not a good idea to have a 250-watt supply if you have 250 watts total in devices, since the supply should not be loaded to 100 percent of its capacity.

According to PC Power & Cooling, Inc., some power consumption values (in watts) for common items in a personal computer are: PC Item Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) card Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) card small computer system interface (SCSI) PCI card floppy disk drive network interface card 50X CD-ROM drive RAM 7200 RPM IDE hard disk drive Motherboard (without CPU or RAM) 550 MHz Pentium III 733 MHz Pentium III 300 MHz Celeron 5W 20 to 25W 5W 4W 10 to 25W 10W per 128M 5 to 15W 20 to 30W 30W 23.5W 18W Watts 20 to 30W

5200 RPM Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) hard disk drive 5 to 11W

600 MHz Athlon 45W Power supplies of the same form factor ("form factor" refers to the actual shape of the motherboard) are typically differentiated by the wattage they supply and the length of the warranty.

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23.6 Power Supply Problems


The PC power supply is probably the most failure-prone item in a personal computer. It heats and cools each time it is used and receives the first in-rush of AC current when the PC is switched on. Typically, a stalled cooling fan is a predictor of a power supply failure due to subsequent overheated components. All devices in a PC receive their DC power via the power supply.

A typical failure of a PC power supply is often noticed as a burning smell just before the computer shuts down. Another problem could be the failure of the vital cooling fan, which allows components in the power supply to overheat. Failure symptoms include random rebooting or failure in Windows for no apparent reason.

For any problems you suspect to be the fault of the power supply, use the documentation that came with your computer. If you have ever removed the case from your personal computer to add an adapter card or memory, you can change a power supply. Make sure you remove the power cord first, since voltages are present even though your computer is off.

23.7 Power Supply Improvements


Recent motherboard and chipset improvements permit the user to monitor the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the power supply fan via BIOS and a Windows application supplied by the motherboard manufacturer. New designs offer fan control so that the fan only runs the speed needed, depending on cooling needs.

Recent designs in Web servers include power supplies that offer a spare supply that can be exchanged while the other power supply is in use. Some new computers, particularly those designed for use as servers, provide redundant power supplies. This means that there are two or more power supplies in the system, with one providing power and the other acting as a backup. The backup supply immediately takes over in the event of a failure by the primary supply. Then, the primary supply can be exchanged while the other power supply is in use.

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24 Scanner
Scanners have become an important part of the home office over the last few years. Scanner technology is everywhere and used in many ways:

Flatbed scanners, also called desktop scanners, are the most versatile and commonly used scanners. Sheet-fed scanners are similar to flatbed scanners except the document is moved and the scan head is immobile. A sheet-fed scanner looks a lot like a small portable printer. Handheld scanners use the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but rely on the user to move them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner typically does not provide good image quality. However, it can be useful for quickly capturing text. Drum scanners are used by the publishing industry to capture incredibly detailed images. They use a technology called a photomultiplier tube (PMT). In PMT, the document to be scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder. At the center of the cylinder is a sensor that splits light bounced from the document into three beams. Each beam is sent through a color filter into a photomultiplier tube where the light is changed into an electrical signal.

The basic principle of a scanner is to analyze an image and process it in some way. Image and text capture (optical character recognition or OCR) allow you to save information to a file on your computer. You can then alter or enhance the image, print it out or use it on your Web page.

24.1 Anatomy of a Scanner


Parts of a typical flatbed scanner include: Charge-coupled device (CCD) array Mirrors Scan head Glass plate Lamp Lens Cover Filters Stepper motor
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Stabilizer bar Belt Power supply Interface port(s) Control circuitry

The core component of the scanner is the CCD array. CCD is the most common technology for image capture in scanners. CCD is a collection of tiny light-sensitive diodes, which convert photons (light) into electrons (electrical charge). These diodes are called photosites. In a nutshell, each photosite is sensitive to light -- the brighter the light that hits a single photosite, the greater the electrical charge that will accumulate at that site.

The image of the document that you scan reaches the CCD array through a series of mirrors, filters and lenses. The exact configuration of these components will depend on the model of scanner, but the basics are pretty much the same.

24.2 The Scanning Process


Here are the steps that a scanner goes through when it scans a document: The document is placed on the glass plate and the cover is closed. The inside of the cover in most scanners is flat white, although a few are black. The cover provides a uniform background that the scanner software can use as a reference point for determining the size of the document being scanned. Most flatbed scanners allow the cover to be removed for scanning a bulky object, such as a page in a thick book. A lamp is used to illuminate the document. The lamp in newer scanners is either a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) or a xenon lamp, while older scanners may have a standard fluorescent lamp. The entire mechanism (mirrors, lens, filter and CCD array) make up the scan head. The scan head is moved slowly across

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the document by a belt that is attached to a stepper motor. The scan head is attached to a stabilizer bar to ensure that there is no wobble or deviation in the pass. Pass means that the scan head has completed a single complete scan of the document. The image of the document is reflected by an angled mirror to another mirror. In some scanners, there are only two mirrors while others use a three mirror approach. Each mirror is slightly curved to focus the image it reflects onto a smaller surface. The last mirror reflects the image onto a lens. The lens focuses the image through a filter on the CCD array. The filter and lens arrangement vary based on the scanner. Some scanners use a three pass scanning method. Each pass uses a different color filter (red, green or blue) between the lens and CCD array. After the three passes are completed, the scanner software assembles the three filtered images into a single full-color image. Most scanners today use the single pass method. The lens splits the image into three smaller versions of the original. Each smaller version passes through a color filter (either red, green or blue) onto a discrete section of the CCD array. The scanner combines the data from the three parts of the CCD array into a single full-color image. Look carefully at the image above and you can see all three of the mirrors plus the lens assembly in this scan head. Another imaging array technology that has become popular in inexpensive flatbed

scanners is contact image sensor (CIS). CIS

replaces the CCD array, mirrors, filters, lamp and lens with rows of red, green and blue light emitting diodes (LEDs). The image sensor mechanism, consisting of 300 to 600 sensors spanning the width of the scan area, is placed very close to the glass plate that the document rests upon. When the image is scanned, the LEDs combine to provide white light. The illuminated image is then captured by the row of sensors. CIS scanners are cheaper, lighter and thinner, but do not provide the same level of quality and resolution found in most CCD scanners.

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25 Laser Printer
The term inkjet printer is very descriptive of the process at work -- these printers put an image on paper using tiny jets of ink. The term laser printer, on the other hand, is a bit more mysterious -- how can a laser beam, a highly focused beam of light, write letters and draw pictures on paper? In this article, we'll unravel the mystery behind the laser printer, tracing a page's path from the characters on your computer screen to printed letters on paper. As it turns out, the laser printing process is based on some very basic scientific principles applied in an exceptionally innovative way.

25.1 The Basics: Static Electricity


The primary principle at work in a laser printer is static electricity, the same energy that makes clothes in the dryer stick together or a lightning bolt travel from a thundercloud to the ground. Static electricity is simply an electrical charge built up on an insulated object, such as a balloon or your body. Since oppositely charged atoms are attracted to each other, objects with opposite static electricity fields cling together. A laser printer uses this phenomenon as a sort of "temporary glue." The core component of this system is the photoreceptor, typically a revolving drum or cylinder. This drum assembly is made out of highly photoconductive material that is discharged by light photons.

25.2 The Basics: Drum


Initially, the drum is given a total positive charge by the charge corona wire, a wire with an electrical current running through it. (Some printers use a charged roller instead of a corona wire, but the principle is the same.) As the drum revolves, the printer shines a tiny laser beam across the surface to discharge certain points. In this way, the laser "draws" the letters and images to be printed as a pattern of electrical charges -- an electrostatic

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image. The system can also work with the charges reversed -- that is, a positive electrostatic image on a negative background.

After the pattern is set, the printer coats the drum with positively charged toner -- a fine, black powder. Since it has a positive charge, the toner clings to the negative discharged areas of the drum, but not to the positively charged "background." This is something like writing on a soda can with glue and then rolling it over some flour: The flour only sticks to the glue-coated part of the can, so you end up with a message written in powder.

With the powder pattern affixed, the drum rolls over a sheet of paper, which is moving along a belt below. Before the paper rolls under the drum, it is given a negative charge by the transfer corona wire (charged roller). This charge is stronger than the negative charge of the electrostatic image, so the paper can pull the toner powder away. Since it is moving at the same speed as the drum, the paper picks up the image pattern exactly. To keep the paper from clinging to the drum, it is discharged by the detac corona wire immediately after picking up the toner.

25.3 The Basics: Fuser


Finally, the printer passes the paper through the fuser, a pair of heated rollers. As the paper passes through these rollers, the loose toner powder melts, fusing with the fibers in the paper. The fuser rolls the paper to the output tray, and you have your finished page. The fuser also heats up the paper itself, of course, which is why pages are always hot when they come out of a laser printer or photocopier.

So what keeps the paper from burning up? Mainly, speed -- the paper passes through the rollers so quickly that it doesn't get very hot.

After depositing toner on the paper, the drum surface passes the discharge lamp. This bright light exposes the entire photoreceptor surface, erasing the electrical image. The drum surface then passes the charge corona wire, which reapplies the positive charge.

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Conceptually, this is all there is to it. Of course, actually bringing everything together is a lot more complex. In the following sections, we'll examine the different components in greater detail to see how they produce text and images so quickly and precisely.

25.4 The Controller: The Conversation


Before a laser printer can do anything else, it needs to receive the page data and figure out how it's going to put everything on the paper. This is the job of the printer controller. The printer controller is the laser printer's main onboard computer. It talks to the host computer (for example, your PC) through a communications port, such as a parallel port or USB port. At the start of the printing job, the laser printer establishes with the host computer how they will exchange data. The controller may have to start and stop the host computer periodically to process the information it has received.

In an office, a laser printer will probably be connected to several separate host computers, so multiple users can print documents from their machine. The controller handles each one separately, but may be carrying on many "conversations" concurrently. This ability to handle several jobs at once is one of the reasons why laser printers are so popular.

25.5 The Laser Assembly


Since it actually draws the page, the printer's laser system -- or laser scanning assembly -must be incredibly precise. The traditional laser scanning assembly includes: A laser A movable mirror A lens The laser receives the page data -- the tiny dots that make up the text and images -- one horizontal line at a time. As the beam moves across the drum, the laser emits a pulse of light for every dot to be printed, and no pulse for every dot of empty space. The laser doesn't actually move the beam itself. It bounces the beam off a movable mirror instead. As
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the mirror moves, it shines the beam through a series of lenses. This system compensates for the image distortion caused by the varying distance between the mirror and points along the drum.

25.6 Writing the Page


The laser assembly moves in only one plane, horizontally. After each horizontal scan, the printer moves the photoreceptor drum up a notch so the laser assembly can draw the next line. A small print-engine computer synchronizes all of this perfectly, even at dizzying speeds.

Some laser printers use a strip of light emitting diodes (LEDs) to write the page image, instead of a single laser. Each dot position has its own dedicated light, which means the printer has one set print resolution. These systems cost less to manufacture than true laser assemblies, but they produce inferior results. Typically, you'll only find them in less expensive printers.

25.7 Toner Basics


One of the most distinctive things about a laser printer (or photocopier) is the toner. It's such a strange concept for the paper to grab the "ink" rather than the printer applying it. And it's even stranger that the "ink" isn't really ink at all. So what is toner? The short answer is: It's an electrically-charged powder with two main ingredients: pigment and plastic. The role of the pigment is fairly obvious -- it provides the coloring (black, in a monochrome printer) that fills in the text and images. This pigment is blended into plastic particles, so the toner will melt when it passes through the heat of the fuser. This quality gives toner a number of advantages over liquid ink. Chiefly, it firmly binds to the fibers in almost any type of paper, which means the text won't smudge or bleed easily.

25.8 Applying Toner


So how does the printer apply this toner to the electrostatic image on the drum? The powder is stored in the toner hopper, a small container built into a removable casing. The printer gathers the toner from the hopper with the developer unit. The "developer" is actually a collection of small, negatively charged magnetic beads. These beads are attached to a rotating metal roller, which moves them through the toner in the toner hopper.

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Because they are negatively charged, the developer beads collect the positive toner particles as they pass through. The roller then brushes the beads past the drum assembly. The electrostatic image has a stronger negative charge than the developer beads, so the drum pulls the toner particles away. The drum then moves over the paper, which has an even stronger charge and so grabs the toner. After collecting the toner, the paper is immediately discharged by the detac corona wire. At this point, the only thing keeping the toner on the page is gravity -- if you were to blow on the page, you would completely lose the image. The page must pass through the fuser to affix the toner. The fuser rollers are heated by internal quartz tube lamps, so the plastic in the toner melts as it passes through. But what keeps the toner from collecting on the fuser rolls, rather than sticking to the page? To keep this from happening, the fuser rolls must be coated with Teflon, the same non-stick material that keeps your breakfast from sticking to the bottom of the frying pan.

25.9 Advantages of a Laser


So why get a laser printer rather than a cheaper inkjet printer? The main advantages of laser printers are speed, precision and economy. A laser can move very quickly, so it can "write" with much greater speed than an ink jet. And because the laser beam has an unvarying diameter, it can draw more precisely, without spilling any excess ink.

Laser printers tend to be more expensive than inkjet printers, but it doesn't cost as much to keep them running -- toner powder is cheap and lasts a long time, while you can use up expensive ink cartridges very quickly. This is why offices typically use a laser printer as their "work horse," their machine for printing long text documents. In most models, this mechanical efficiency is complemented by advanced processing efficiency. A typical laserprinter controller can serve everybody in a small office.

When they were first introduced, laser printers were too expensive to use as a personal printer. Since that time, however, laser printers have gotten much more affordable. Now you can pick up a basic model for just a little bit more than a nice inkjet printer. As technology advances, laser-printer prices should continue to drop, while performance improves. We'll also see a number of innovative design variations, and possibly brandnew applications of electrostatic printing. Many inventors believe we've only scratched the surface of what we can do with simple static electricity!

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Module # 5

Computer Networks

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26 History of Networking
Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them.

In September 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANet.

In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer (DEC's PDP-8) to route and manage telephone connections.

Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switched network between computer systems.

In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet network using 50 kbit/s circuits.

Computer networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home user.

Today, computer networks are a requirement of modern communication. The scope of communication has increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications might not have been possible without the advancements in computer networks.

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27
1. 2. 3.

Types of Networking
Local Area Network (LAN) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

Networks are generally classified into 3 types.

27.1 Local Area Network


Originally, only medium to large-sized businesses could afford the cost of networking hardware. In the last decade, prices have rapidly dropped as new technology has developed. The affordable price and added convenience of having a LAN has made it commonplace to see networks in many homes and offices. Each PC in a LAN is able to access shared files and devices anywhere on the LAN. This makes the sharing of expensive devices, such as laser printers or large removable storage drives, a costeffective alternative to purchasing a device for every user.

There are three different types of cabling for Ethernet networks. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) is the most popular type of cabling, and the one we recommend because of its wide availability and low price. The other two types are coaxial and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). STP cable provides more shielding against outside Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) than UTP, but is more expensive. We've never had any problems with EMI, so we suggest the cheaper UTP. Coaxial uses much thicker and more expensive cable, and must be run in a ring configuration, from PC to PC, unlike Twisted Pair, which is run directly from each computer to a port on the hub, making wiring more convenient in most cases.

27.2 Metropolitan Area Network


A MAN (metropolitan area network) is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a
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wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network (which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines. The latter usage is also sometimes referred to as a campus network.

Examples of metropolitan area networks of various sizes can be found in the metropolitan areas of Lahore and Karachi. World Call Multimedia is providing Cable Internet to its user in maximum areas of Lahore.

27.3 Wide Area Network


A WAN (wide area network) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications network and the term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a local area network (LAN). A wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually connotes the inclusion of public (shared user) networks. An intermediate form of network in terms of geography is a metropolitan area network (MAN).

Wide area network services can be classified in many ways. First, there are services by public carriers and those provided through private user facilities like microwave or private optic cable networks. Second, services can be based on relatively permanent connections (switched or dial-up). Services can also be based on analog information flows or digital flows, and on circuit or packet-switched technology.

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28

Network Topologies

In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking.

28.1 Topology in Network Design


One can think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

1. bus 2. ring 3. star 4. tree

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

28.1.1

Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.

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Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

28.1.2

Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

28.1.3

Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

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28.1.4

Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

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29 Network Cabling
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable Wireless LANs

29.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable


Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry

Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

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Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair Type Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5 Use Voice Only (Telephone Wire) Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk) Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet) Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring) Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

Buy the best cable you can afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5. If you are designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and are considering the cost savings of buying Category 3 wire instead of Category 5, remember that the Category 5 cable will provide more "room to grow" as transmission technologies increase. Both Category 3 and Category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length of 100 meters. In Florida, Category 5 cable is required for retrofit grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for unshielded twisted pair cable (Category 3, 4, or 5) carrying Ethernet signals. Category 6 is relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.

29.2 Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector


The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

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29.3 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable


A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

29.4 Coaxial Cable


Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial. Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks. Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

29.5 Coaxial Cable Connectors


The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-NeillConcelman (BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

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29.6 Fiber Optic Cable


Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Facts about fiber optic cables: Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC. Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage. A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center. Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

29.7 Fiber Optic Connector


The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.

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29.8 Ethernet Cable Summary


Specification 10BaseT 10Base2 10Base5 10BaseF 100BaseT 100BaseTX Cable Type Unshielded Twisted Pair Thin Coaxial Thick Coaxial Fiber Optic Unshielded Twisted Pair Unshielded Twisted Pair Maximum length 100 meters 185 meters 500 meters 2000 meters 100 meters 220 meters

29.9 Wireless LANs

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless. Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite. Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers or remote computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where it may be difficult or impossible to install cables. The two most common types of infrared communications used in schools are line-of-sight and scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an unblocked direct line between the workstation and the transceiver. If a person walks within the line-of-sight while there is a transmission, the information would need to be sent again. This kind of obstruction can slow down the wireless network.
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Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared transmissions sent out in multiple directions that bounces off walls and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver. Networking communications with laser are virtually the same as line-of-sight infrared networks. Wireless LANs have several disadvantages. They provide poor security, and are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices. They are also slower than LANs using cabling.

29.10Installing Cable - Some Guidelines


When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules: Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack. Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be difficult to isolate later. Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference. If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors. Label both ends of each cable. Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

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30 Network Devices
Network components and devices are the physical entities connected to a network. There are many types of network devices and increasing daily. The basic network devices are: Computers either a PC or a Server, Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers, Gateways, Network interface cards (NICs), Wireless access points (WAPs), Printers and Modems. The following is a overview of the main network components and devices: Workstation: The personal computer is typically a desktop computer, a workstation or a notebook for individual users. The individual computers are the most common type of microcomputer and is found in the majority of organizations. Server: A computer on a network or other network device that stores all necessary information and is dedicated to provide a particular service. For example, a database server would store all data and software related to a certain database and allows other network devices to access and process database queries. A file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files for any user on the network to store files on the server. A print server is a device that manages one or more printers, and a network server is a computer that manages network traffic. Network Interface Card: Network Interface Cards (NIC) are adaptors attached with a computer or other network device to provide the connection between the computer with the network. Each NIC is design for a specific type of network such as Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI or wireless LAN. The NIC operates using the physical layer (layer 1) and data link layer (layer 2) specifications. NIC basically defines the physical connection methods with the cable and the framing methods used to transmit bit streams over the network. It also defines the control signals that provide the timing of data transfers across network. Hubs: Hubs are the simplest network devices. Computers connect to a hub via a length of twisted-pair cabling. On a hub, data is forwarded to all ports, regardless of whether the data is intended for the system connected to the port. In addition to ports for connecting computers, even a very inexpensive hub generally has a port designated as an uplink port that enables the hub to be connected to another hub to create larger networks.

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Switches: Switch is a layer 2 and multi-port device. Switch provides similar functions as a hub or a bridge but has more advanced features that can temporarily connect any two ports together. It contains a switch matrix or switch fabric that can rapidly connect and disconnect ports. Unlike Hub, a switch only forward frame from one port to the other port where the destination node is connected without broadcast to all other ports. Routers: Routers route data around the network from data senders to receivers. A router is able to determine the destination address for the data and determines the best way for the data to continue its journey. Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardwareconfigured MAC address to determine the destination of the data, routers use the logic network address such as IP address to make decisions. Gateway: The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software application that can perform the function of translating data from one format to another. Gateway will not change the data itself. For example, a router that can route data from an IPX network to an IP network is, technically, a gateway. The same can be said of a translational switch that converts from an Ethernet network to a Token Ring network and back again. Modems: Modems are access devices that translate digital signals from a computer into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines. The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at the receiving end. Modems are required for many access methods such as 56k data modern, ISDN, DSL etc. They can be as internal devices that plug into expansion slots in a system; external devices that plug into serial or USB ports; PCMCIA cards designed for use in laptops; and specialized devices designed for use in systems such as handheld computers. In addition, many laptops now come with integrated modems. For large-scale modem implementations, such as at an ISP, rackmounted modems are also available.

Transceiver / Repeater: Transceiver also known as Repeater is a device that receives data from one side and regenerate/refresh it and send it to the next device. Transceiver is usually used on the point where signals are weakening and the destination is still far.

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31 OSI Reference Model


Virtually all networks in use today are based in some fashion on the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standard. OSI was developed in 1984 by the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a global federation of national standards organizations representing approximately 130 countries.

The core of this standard is the OSI Reference Model, a set of seven layers that define the different stages that data must go through to travel from one device to another over a network. In this article, you'll find out all about the OSI standard.

31.1 The Layers


Think of the seven layers as the assembly line in the computer. At each layer, certain things happen to the data that prepare it for the next layer. The seven layers, which separate into two sets, are:

31.1.1

Application Set

Layer 7: Application - This is the layer that actually interacts with the operating system or application whenever the user chooses to transfer files, read messages or performs other network-related activities.

Layer 6: Presentation - Layer 6 takes the data provided by the Application layer and converts it into a standard format that the other layers can understand.

Layer 5: Session - Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the receiving device.

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31.1.2

Transport Set

Layer 4: Transport - This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and recovery of data between the devices. Flow control means that the Transport layer looks to see if data is coming from more than one application and integrates each application's data into a single stream for the physical network.

Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is determined in this layer. Logical protocols, routing and addressing are handled here.

Layer 2: Data - In this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to the data. Also, the type of network and the packet sequencing is defined.

Layer 1: Physical - This is the level of the actual hardware. It defines the physical characteristics of the network such as connections, voltage levels and timing. The OSI Reference Model is really just a guideline. Actual protocol stacks often combine one or more of the OSI layers into a single layer.

31.1.3

Protocol Stacks

A protocol stack is a group of protocols that all work together to allow software or hardware to perform a function. The TCP/IP protocol stack is a good example. It uses four layers that map to the OSI model as follows:

Layer 1: Network Interface - This layer combines the Physical and Data layers and routes the data between devices on the same network. It also manages the exchange of data between the network and other devices.

Layer 2: Internet - This layer corresponds to the Network layer. The Internet Protocol (IP) uses the IP address, consisting of a Network Identifier and a Host Identifier, to determine the address of the device it is communicating with.

Layer 3: Transport - Corresponding to the OSI Transport layer, this is the part of the protocol stack where the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) can be found. TCP works by asking another device on the network if it is willing to accept information from the local device.

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Layer 4: Application - Layer 4 combines the Session, Presentation and Application layers of the OSI model. Protocols for specific functions such as e-mail (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP) and file transfer (File Transfer Protocol, FTP) reside at this level.

As you can see, it is not necessary to develop a separate layer for each and every function outlined in the OSI Reference Model. But developers are able to ensure that a certain level of compatibility is maintained by following the general guidelines provided by the model.

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32

Protocols

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

32.1 LAN Protocols


The most common LAN protocols are: Ethernet LocalTalk Token Ring FDDI ATM

32.1.1

Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the network.

The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.

32.1.2

Fast Ethernet

To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and

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network interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet is becoming common in schools that have been recently wired.

32.1.3

Gigabit Ethernet

The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet is primarily used for backbones on a network at this time. In the future, it will probably be used for workstation and server connections also. It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The 1000BaseTX, the copper cable used for Gigabit Ethernet, is expected to become the formal standard in 1999.

32.1.4

LocalTalk

LocalTalk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh computers. The method used by LocalTalk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. LocalTalk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to connect a series of computers through the serial port. The Macintosh operating system allows the establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional software. With the addition of the server version of AppleShare software, a client/server network can be established. The LocalTalk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of LocalTalk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

32.1.5

Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving computer. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

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32.1.6

FDDI

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is used primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The access method used by FDDI involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs, the system keeps information moving by automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.

32.1.7

ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas, other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted pair cable. ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks. It is also frequently used by Internet Service Providers to utilize high-speed access to the Internet for their clients. As ATM technology becomes more cost-effective, it will provide another solution for constructing faster local area networks.

Protocol Summary Protocol Ethernet Cable Speed Topology Linear Bus, Star, Tree Star Linear Bus or Star

Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps 100 Mbps .23 Mbps

Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber LocalTalk Token Ring FDDI ATM Twisted Pair Twisted Pair Fiber Twisted Pair, Fiber

4 Mbps - 16 Mbps Star-Wired Ring 100 Mbps 155-2488 Mbps Dual ring Linear Bus, Star, Tree

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33 Sub netting
The process of subnetting involves dividing a network up into smaller networks called subnets or subnetworks.

To create these additional networks we use a subnet mask. The subnet mask simply determines which portion of the IP address belongs to the host.

The subnet mask does not alter the class of the IP address; it simply "borrows" bits from the host portion and uses these to create subnets. This naturally reduces the maximum number of hosts your network can have, because you are using some of your host bits for your subnet bits.

The subnet mask can borrow as many bits as you like, the more bits you borrow, the more subnets you can create. Bear in mind though, that increasing the number of subnets decreases the number of hosts that each subnet can have. You can calculate the number of bits to borrow using the following equation.

2n - 2 = number of subnets n = number of host or node bits

Notice that this equation is very similar to the number of available hosts equation.

33.1 Subnetting Example


Dotted Decimal IP Binary IP 175 50 0 0 10101111 00110100 00000000 00000000 255 0 0

Standard subnet mask for Class B 255 Binary standard subnet mask Subnetted mask Binary subnetted mask

11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255 255 224 0

11111111 11111111 11100000 00000000

As you can see form the example above if we use the subnet mask of 255.255.224.0 on a class B IP address then we will be "borrowing" 3 host bits to use for subnetting. From our equation we can calculate that this will create 23-2 = 6 useable subnets and this will leave

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us with 13 host bits for each subnet, which will provide us with 213-2=8190 hosts per subnet.

33.2 Subnet Ranges


1st 2 Octets (dotted decimal) 3rd Octet (binary) 4th Octet (binary) 175.50 175.50 175.50 175.50 175.50 175.50 00100000 01000000 01100000 10000000 10100000 11000000 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000000
Last usable subnet

First usable subnet

Lets look at the first subnet in more detail. 175.50.32.0. This address is the "wire" or "network" address of the subnet.

33.3 First Subnet Range


1st 2 Octets (dotted decimal) 3rd Octet (binary) 4th Octet (binary) 175.50 175.50 175.50 175.50 00100000 00100000 00111111 00111111 00000000 00000001 11111110 11111111 Network ID First host Last host Broadcast address

First Subnet Range in Dotted Decimal

175.50.32.0 175.50.32.1

Network ID First host

175.50.63.254 Last host 175.50.63.255 Broadcast host

As you can see from the above example, it's much easier to work out subnetting in binary than decimal format.

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34 Network Commands
Ping - Verifies IP-level connectivity to another TCP/IP computer by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages. The receipt of corresponding Echo Reply messages are displayed, along with round-trip times. Ping is the primary TCP/IP command used to troubleshoot connectivity, reachability, and name resolution.

Ipconfig - Displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. Used without parameters, ipconfig displays the IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway for all adapters.

Netstat - listening, Ethernet statistics, the IP routing table, IPv4 statistics (for the IP, ICMP, TCP, and UDP protocols), and IPv6 statistics (for the IPv6, ICMPv6, TCP over IPv6, and UDP over IPv6 protocols). Used without parameters, netstat displays active TCP connections.

Hostname - Displays the host name portion of the full computer name of the computer.

Getmac - Returns the media access control (MAC) address and list of network protocols associated with each address for all network cards in each computer, either locally or across a network.

Nslookup - Displays information that you can use to diagnose Domain Name System (DNS) infrastructure. Before using this tool, you should be familiar with how DNS works. The Nslookup command-line tool is available only if you have installed the TCP/IP protocol.

Tracert - Determines the path taken to a destination by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages to the destination with incrementally increasing Time to Live (TTL) field values. The path displayed is the list of near-side router interfaces of the routers in the path between a source host and a destination. The near-side interface is the interface of the router that is closest to the sending host in the path.

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35 ASCII TABLE

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS TAB LF VT FF CR SO SI

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , . /

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

@ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95

P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _

96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o

112 p 113 q 114 r 115 s 116 t 117 u 118 v 119 w 120 x 121 y 122 z 123 { 124 | 125 } 126 ~ 127 DEL

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