620.82 B764 2009 SOURCE: BOOK TITLE: Introduction to Ergonomics 3rd Edition AUTHOR: R. S.

Bridger C 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 3000 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 CRC Press is an Imprint of Taylor & Francis Group c The eyes lead the body J. Sheedy p. 363

Light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible. The electromagnetic vision is extremely wide but the visible part is extremely narrow. P. 363 In the electromagnetic spectrum, visible light falls in the range 380-760 nm. P 364

The pupil works like the aperture of a camera to vary the amount of light entering the eye. In bright light, the iris contracts, the pupillary diameter decreases, and only the central part of the lens forms an image on the retina. In poor light, the iris expands and a larger area of the lens is used. Because the peripheral regions of the lens focus the light slightly in front of the image formed by the central part (a characteristic of all simple lenses termed spherical aberration), slight blurring occurs when the objects are viewed in poor light. This explains why the ability to discern detail (visual acuity) is reduced in poor light. Using photographic terminology, it can be said that good lighting increases the depth field of the eye. When the pupil is small, the eye acts like a pinhole cameraall objects are focused on the retina irrespective of the viewing distance. Increased depth of field reduces the need of optical adjustment by the refractive lens. It is in this case that good lighting reduces the load on the visual system. P. 363

PTF (precorneal tear film)- covers the eye and protects it from the outer environment (Wolkoff et al. , 2004). P.365 Eye blinking and tear production are essential for the maintenance of the PTF. P.365

The blink rate decreases under high mental workload and increases during conversation. P.366

Tasks requiring concentration can reduce the blink rate.

P366

Tsubota and Nakamori (1995) The area of exposed eye was 2.2 sq cm when the 2 subjects were relaxed, 1.2 cm when the subjects read a book ( with the angle of gaze cast downward), and 2.3 cm2 when subjects looked straight ahead to operate a VDT. The rate of the evaporation of tears increased with increasing ocular surface leading the researchers to recommend that VDTs should be set at a lower height t prevent the eyes from drying out during VDT work. The reduced ocular surface when reading a book negated the drop in blink rate, which accounts for part of the increased prevalence of visual complaints when operating VDTs compared to reading. The use of spectacles with side panels was also recommended. These recommendations are likely to be of most use in environments where relative humidity is low. In summary, eye complaintsas a result of alterations to the PTF may be caused by 1. VDT or other near work that is mentally demanding reducing blink rate and causes dehydration of PTF 2. Prolonged upward gaze due to visual displays mounted too high (above sitting or standing height), widening the exposed ocular surface and the rate of water loss or exposure to indoor air pollutants 3. Low relative humidity increasing the rate of water loss 4. High air movement (> 1 m/s) around the eye increasing evaporation 5. A slowing of upper eyelid movement and amplitude due to fatigue 6. Contact lens use 7. Interactions between indoor pollutants such as ozone and organic compounds leading to the production of eye irritants p. 366

Unlike the cornea, the lens has variable refractive power, enabling light from both distant and near objects to be focused sharply onto the retinaa process known as accommodation. P366

The refractive power of the eye is varied is varied by changing the shape of the lens. When the distant objects are viewed, the lens assumes a flat, disc shape. When near object are viewed, the lens is flatter and rounder with greater refractive power. P367

Most visual problems due to optical causes can be successfully corrected using appropriate lenses. When viewing a distant object, the incident light rays are approximately parallel. They are refracted by the cornea and lens produce an image on the retina. In practice, any object more than about 6 m away can be considered at infinity. When viewing close objects, the incident light rays are divergent and greater refractive power is required to produce sharp image on the retina. In young people, the refractive power of the lens is can increase from 15 to 29 D to bring close objects into focusthe lens has about 14 D of accommodation in these individuals (Guyton, 1991). Although this is quite a small proportion of the eyes total refractive power, it is necessary for seeing clearly both near and middle distance objects (such as a VDT on a desk and a notice board on a wall across a room). P367

The mechanism of accommodation is as follows. The lens has a naturally convex shape. It is held in place by a capsule and a muscle known as the ciliary muscle. The ciliary muscle is situated around the equator of the lens to which it is attached by the ligaments. When a near object is fixated, the ciliary muscle contracts and moves closer to the lens in a sphincter-like action. This reduces the tension in the ligaments and permits the lens t adopt its natural convex shape increasing its refractive power. When fixating a distant object, the ciliary muscles relax and move further away from the lens. Tension in the capsule is increased by the pull of the ligaments and the lens is pulled into a flatter shape with less refractive power. P367 Thus the ciliary muscles have to contract to accommodate near objects and it is in this sense that the visual workload can be considered to be greater when viewing near rather than distant objects. Visual workload can be considered to be greater when viewing near rather than distant objects. P367 Visual workload in close tasks can be reduced by permitting micro-breaks every few minutes in which the eyes are refocused on a distant object for a few seconds. This is known as visual relief. P368

The near point of vision is the closest distance at which an object can be brought into sharp focus. A 16 year old can focus on an object less than 10 cm in front of the eye. However, the lens loses elasticity with age and, in practice, this results in a reduction in refractive power. By the age 60 years, the near point may have receded to 100 cm. This is why older people often need reading glasses or for example, have to hold the paper at arms length, when reading the newspaper. By the age of about 50 years, the lens has only about 2 D of accommodation left. After this, it can be regarded as completely non-accommodatinga condition known as presbyopia. The result of presbyopia is that theyey becomes focused at a fixed distance, which varies between different people depending on the characteristics and condition f their eyes. Frequently, the fixed viewing distance in the presbyopic eye is intermediate

between the previous near and far points and the person has to wear bifocal lenses, the upper part are set for distant vision and the lower part for near vision (mainly for reading). Bifocal or trifocal lenses can restore a kind of stepwise accommodation to the presbyopic eye. In practice, if workplaces are adequately lit, the depth of the field of the eye is increased and the net effect is to lower the requirements for accommodation. This explains why good lighting is important in all facilities used by older people. P368

Several problems may occur if defective vision is not corrected. First, suboptimal vision may degrade performance. Second, excessive load on the muscles of the refractive system may cause visual fatigue. Third, the worker may adopt stressful body postures to orientate the head in an attempt to see better. Neck and shoulder problems may result. P370

White light is a mixture of different wavelengths. A defect of all simple lenses is that light of a given wavelength is focused slightly nearer or farther away than other wavelengths. This is known as chromatic aberration. Chromatic aberration can cause the outlines of the objects to have purple or red fringes (shortest and longest wavelengths). P370 Chromatic aberration is exacerbated when the papillary diameter is large (as in poor lighting). P370

The eyes are a small distant apart. When looking at a distant object such as a mountain several kilometers away, each eye receives a similar image because the lines of sight of the two eyes are parallel and the distance apart of the two eyes is negligible compared to the distance of the viewed object. P370 When closer objects are viewed, the eyes converged to the object, that is to say, the lines of sight of each eye meet at the object. Convergence decreases with distance. When viewing close objects, the two eyes view the object from slightly different angles so that the images cast onto the two retinas differ slightly. The position of eyes in their sockets is controlled by the vergence system. Lgithly pressing one eye with the finger causes the perception of double images, which is known as diplopia. Long hours of close visual work may cause imbalances in the muscles controlling eye movement, a condition known as phoria, and increase the perceived effort required to carry out the task. P370

The retina is the most complex part of the eye consisting of a layer of light sensitive cells connected to nerve fibers and is sometimes considered to be an extension of the brain (a little piece of brain lying within the eyeball). P373 The retina contains two types of light-sensitive cells, known as rods and cones. There are over 100 million rods ad 6 million cones. Rods are more sensitive to light than cones and are essential for scotopic (night) vision. Bright light bleaches the rods, which renders them ineffective and the cone of photopic system then comes into operation. P373

PAGE 377 Measurement of light is essential in the design and evaluation of workplaces. Because the eye adapt to light

Retinal adaptation is the ability of the retina to change its sensitivity according to the ambient lighting. When walking from a darkened cinema into a sunny street, a temporary feeling of being dazzled is experienced. The diameter of the pupil decreases to reduce the amount of light entering the eye, the rods are bleached, and the photopic system quickly comes into operation. On going from a bright area to a dark one, the pupil increases in size and the chemical changes take place in the retina as the rods slowly come into operation. On going from a bright area to a dark one, the pupil increases in size and chemical changes in the retina as the rods slowly come into operation. Full adaptation to dark conditions can take place up to 20 minutes so it is important not to expose the dark-adapted eye to sudden, bright lights since even brief exposures will degrade scotopic vision for some time afterward. P374