1.

Pavlovs Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: A form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. (Ex. Bell in Pavlovs experiment did not produce salvation, therefore it is the natural stimulus) Unconditioned Stimulus: The stimulus that draws out an unconditioned response. (The food was the unconditioned stimulus because it made the dog salvate) Unconditioned Response: Response drawn out by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. (Salvation was the UCR because is was the response to the dog sensing food) Conditioned Stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response. Called conditioned stimulus when first paired with the unconditioned stimulus. (Ringing the bell was the conditioned stimulus) Conditioned Response: Response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus. (The dogs salvation becomes the conditioned response) Classical conditioning is only possible with involuntary actions, such as eye blinks or salvation. The process begins by the UCS producing a UCR. In the case of Pavlov, the food being presented to the dog was the UCS, and the dogs salvation was the UCR. Next, the CS is presented before the UCS, and the CS begins to signal the CR. Pavlov rung a bell before he presented the food to the dog. The CS soon begins to produce the CR. The ringing of the bell soon led the dog to salvate, in anticipation of food. Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus, usually when the UCS is not presented. Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished condition after a time delay. Over time, when just the CS is presented, the effect of the CR will lower significantly, and will not occur over time. If the UCS is presented again, the CR will start to spontaneously occur again. Classical Conditioning has many uses: For helping drug addicts, and treating emotional disorders.

2. Watsons Little Albert Experiment

John Watson performed an experiment in 1920 where he classically conditioned a 9 month old baby to be scared of rats Watson used the loud sound of a hammer hitting steel as his UCS, and fear became the conditioned stimulus After several trials, it took seven trials to classically condition Albert to have fear of the rat Alberts fear increased to the point where he would be afraid of anything furry, such as a rabbit or the beard of santa claus Alberts fear decreased rapidly, and attempting to condition him again did not occur to their expectations Unlike Alberts short-lived aversions to furry objects, other people seem to have long lived fears that were learned under extreme conditions. Today, the Little Albert experiment would be considered unethical We have learned that classical conditioning was useful for treating phobias, called counterconditioning

3. Principles of Conditioning Operant Conditioning: A form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences- that is, by the stimuli that follow the response. Operant Conditioning is a form of learning that is used with voluntary actions. For example, when we want to eat, we will do anything to obtain that food (reinforcement) Law of effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or stamped into the organism. Skinner created the Skinner box to observe animal behavior. Animals would have to press a button or a lever in order to obtain a food reward. Shaping: An operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response Extinction: A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement. Reinforcement contingencies: Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response. Operant conditioning is useful for teaching new behaviors, while classical conditioning bringing out the same responses to different stimuli. On the other hand, rewards and punishment is involved in operant conditioning. Both types of conditioning have extinction. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the UCS is upheld and the CS no longer produces the CR. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when reinforcement is upheld. We are conditioned by many extreme events in our lives to develop fears and phobias

4. Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement: Programs specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements There are two types of schedules of reinforcement: Ratio schedules and Interval Schedules Ratio schedules: Programs by which reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses For example, workers who sell cars usually get a bonus (reinforcement) based on how many cars they sell Ratio schedules breakdown into two schedules: Fixed Ratio schedules and Variable Ratio schedules Fixed Ratio Schedules: Programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses (If you work at a tire factory, getting payment for a certain amount of tires produced) Variable Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement programs by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial (Slot machines produce rewards at random times) Interval Schedules: Programs by which reinforcements depend on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement (getting paid on a monthly or a weekly basis) Interval Schedules breakdown into fixed interval schedules and variable interval schedules Fixed Interval schedules: Programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, fixed time period Variable interval schedules: Programs by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trail to trail

5. Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcer: A condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response Food, sex, and money are the most common examples Positive reinforcement: A stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of that response happening again. (Adding something to increase behavior) Negative reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior. (Removing something to increase behavior) Reinforcement contingencies: Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response. Punishment: An aversive stimulus which, occurring after a response, diminishes the strength of that response. Positive punishment: The application of an aversive stimulus after a response. (Parents let child go and play with friends for cleaning his/her room) Omission training (negative punishment): The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response, leading to a decrease in behavior (Parents take away a teens car keys) Punishment and negative reinforcement is not the same thing. For example, if you close the door to make the annoying beeping sound go away, you are removing a stimulus to obtain reinforcement, thus making this negative reinforcement. On the other hand, if you dont buckle your seat belt, the annoying noise will come, making this situation punishment.

6. Observational Learning Observational Learning: A form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others behavior and the consequences of their behavior Albert Bandura came up with a study in which adults would commit violent behaviors towards an inflatable blow up doll, children would then be set free to play with the doll It was observed that the children committed the same violent behaviors that the adults did that they observed We tend to watch the behaviors of others and mimic them when they appear to be successful Children learn their behaviors from the people the spend most of their times with, such as their parents For example, clothing choices and slang expressions happen both tend to be learned among everyone easily Creatures as simple as the octopus learn by observing the behaviors of other octopi The bowerbird in Australia as observed people using their cell phones, and therefore has learned to imitate cell phone ringing