UNIT 2 PSYCHOLOGY

ATTITUDE FORMATION & CHANGE

What is an Attitude?
An attitude is commonly defined as: An evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.
An evaluation is a judgement being made, either positive, negative or neutral about our lives and the world in which we live.

Attitudes involve reactions- likes and dislikes, preferences and aversions, as well as noninvolvement. In order for the judgement being made to be considered an attitude, it must be consistent and lasting.

The Tri-component model of attitudes

The most influential and widely used model to explain and/or describe attitudes is called the Tri-component model of attitudes. The Tri-component model of attitudes proposes that: any attitude has three related components Affective, Behavioural Cognitive. These are often referred to as the ABCs of attitudes.

Affective Component
The affective component of an attitude refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group etc. It is based on a judgement which results in a positive (I love), negative (I hate) or neutral response (It doesnt interest me).

Behavioural Component
The behavioural component of an attitude refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions, or how we might behave should the opportunity arise. For example doing exercise such as running (action) fits into reflects our attitude to fitness and health

Cognitive Component
The cognitive component of an attitude refers to the beliefs we have about an object, person, group etc. Our beliefs are linked to what we know about the world and they develop as a result of our experiences throughout the course of our lives. Some beliefs are based on facts such as the belief that STIs can be transmitted by anyone who doesnt engage in protected sex. Or they can be false such as the belief that only people who act promiscuous transmit and catch STIs. An attitude involving a verifiable belief is more easily changed than an attitude involving an unverifiable belief.

This is the cutest girl ever!

I think he comes from a good breed!

Tri-components working together

The tri-component model proposes that all three components must be present before it can be said that an attitude exists. In many cases, the affective, cognitive and behavioural components are consistent. For example, you may enjoy playing football on the weekend (affective) and train really hard for a good game and accurate kicking (behavioural) because you believe that playing football is a good way to keep fit, healthy and increase chances of being drafted for Division 1 senior finals (cognitive).

Limitations of the Tri-component model of attitudes

The inconsistency that can occur between the three different components (ABC), appears as an inconsistency between a persons attitude and their actual behaviour. Therefore, the assumption that understanding a persons attitude enables us to accurately predict their behaviour is not necessarily correct. For example, Lucy hates cauliflower (affective component) but eats it at her friends place (behavioural component) as she thinks it is the polite thing to do (cognitive component). Another example, Mike loves Psychology (affective component) and thinks it will help him get into his chosen career (cognitive component) but he continually misbehaves in class as his mates are in there too (behavioural component).

Limitations of the Tri-component model of attitudes

One of the first research studies on the relationship between attitudes and behaviour was conducted by American sociologist Richard La Piere (1934). La Piere was interested in finding out whether there was a consistency between a persons attitudes towards others with different racial backgrounds and their behaviour towards such people. Read the summary of his investigation on p329 of your text and then complete L.A. 8.4 on the same page.

Cognitive Dissonance
If we are aware of inconsistencies within our attitudes, or when the way in which we actually behave is different from the way we believe we should behave, then we can experience psychological tension or discomfort. This experience is known as cognitive dissonance. When people experience dissonance, they may try to reduce the psychological discomfort they feel to make themselves feel better. This may be achieved by changing either their attitudes or their behaviour. For example, Leah knows she needs to lose weight but justifies her eating fast food three times a week as a result of her busy lifestyle. For example, Simon knows smoking is bad for his health but tells himself its ok as he only does it socially.

Attitudes and behaviour

There are many factors that influence whether attitudes and behaviour will be consistent. Research findings have identified a number of conditions when it is more likely that attitudes and behaviour will match. These include: STRENGTH OF THE ATTITUDE A strong attitude is an attitude that is usually thought about, well-known and easily accessible. It also tends to be personally relevant & have a strong underlying emotional component. The stronger the attitude, the more likely it is that it will be stable & consistent over time, be resistant to change, & influence behaviour. Stronger attitudes are a more powerful indicator of future behaviour than weaker attitudes. For example, someone with a strong attitude against animal testing is likely to behave in ways that support this, such as through buying products not tested on animals.

Attitudes and behaviour

ACCESSIBILITY OF THE ATTITUDE American social psychologist Elliot Aronson has proposed that attitudes & behaviour are more likely to be consistent when the attitude is accessible to the individual. An accessible attitude is one that easily comes to mind- it has been thought about, is well known & has been stored in memory ready for use. SOCIAL CONTEXT OF THE ATTITUDE American social psychologists Fishbein & Ajzen (1975) have proposed that whether an attitude leads to actual behaviour may be dependent on the social context or specific situation in which a person finds themself. In some situations, the context may overpower the affective & cognitive of an attitude a person may hold. For example, peer group pressure at a party to drink alcohol, even though you know you shouldnt and dont want to.

Attitudes and behaviour

PERCEIVED CONTROL OVER THE BEHAVIOUR Attitudes & behaviour are more likely to match when people perceive that they have control over the behaviour that may be triggered by their attitude. For example, someone who believes taking drugs is dangerous & gets upset when they hear of drug related deaths, is likely to do something about their belief such as refusing to ever take drugs or campaigning the government for harsher drug trafficking penalties. This behaviour will only occur however if the person believes they can actually do something about it and there is nothing really stopping them from doing so.

through the process of learning. There are three main types of learning. These include:

Factors influencing attitude formation over a long period of time, Psychologists believe that our attitudes form, usually
SUMMARY

NAME OF LEARNING

CLASSICAL This is a simple form of learning that occurs through the repeated CONDITIONING association of two different stimuli. E.g. advertisers of make up regularly using celebrities to sell their products. OPERANT This kind of learning is based on the belief that we tend to repeat CONDITIONING behaviours which gives a positive consequence (e.g. praise) & we tend to avoid or not repeat behaviours which give an undesirable consequence (e.g. detention). MODELLING This is a form of learning in which someone uses observation of another persons actions & their consequences to guide their future thoughts, feelings & behaviours. E.g. you see a sibling get grounded for swearing, you therefore learn not to swear.

Factors influencing attitude formation

Another way that a persons attitudes can form is through repeated exposure. This means simply being exposed to an object, person, group, event or issue repeatedly. Research suggests that if we are exposed to an object, person, group, event or issue repeatedly, we can develop a positive attitude towards it. This is known as the mere exposure effect. For example, your parents have played James Taylor CDs your whole life. Consequently, you have developed a fairly positive view of his music, simply because you have heard it so often. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tsOBSo_jKnM

Attitudes Towards People

When we meet someone for the first time, we tend to judge them on a number of characteristics such as the way they look, the way they dress, the way the speak, their mannerisms etc. We may also ask for information about their age, where they live, their interests and opinions. Collecting such information about a person helps us to build up a view of them that can help guide the way in which we interact with them. The initial evaluation we make about a person occurs very quickly and these first impressions can tend to be lasting ones. This is called the primacy effect, which means that the initial impression we form of a person is more influential than any later information that we may gain. For example, this is why psychologists think we should look our best for a job interview... first impressions last!

Attitudes Towards People cont

STEREOTYPING When we evaluate people, we tend to do so by trying to fit them into a category based on our knowledge of people and the world. This process of grouping or fitting people into a category based on what we know about them is called stereotyping. Being stereotyped as belonging to a particular social or cultural group carries with it the belief by people forming the stereotype that all individuals in the group have the same characteristics. A stereotype is defined as a collection of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of that group. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOZd11Mcej4

Attitudes Towards People cont

STEREOTYPING Creating stereotypes about people we meet can be both helpful and problematic.

ADVANTAGES Stereotypes help us to make sense of our world by giving it order. Stereotypes provide us with a general system which guides our interactions with others.

DISADVANTAGES Stereotypes can be inaccurate as they are often based on incorrect or inadequate information. Stereotyping people ignores individual differences.

Stereotypes assist us in knowing how Stereotyping can lead to stigmatisation we should react to new people we meet. (a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in this way).

Attitudes Towards People cont

STEREOTYPES & EXPECTATIONS How would you describe each of the following according to their stereotype?

Attitudes Towards People cont

PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION Stereotyping can lead to prejudice, which can in turn result in discrimination. Prejudice is often defined as holding a negative attitude towards the members of a group, based solely on their membership of that group. E.g. women, men, ethnic groups, indigenous people, those with a disability etc. A person who is prejudiced against some group tends to evaluate its members negatively and individual characteristics or behaviours are usually overlooked.

Attitudes Towards People cont

PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION Psychologists have distinguished between two main types of prejudice; old-fashioned and modern. Old-fashioned prejudice is where members of the majority group openly reject minority group members. In addition, their views towards the minority group are obvious and recognisable to others. E.g. the belief that white people are superior to black people. Modern prejudice is a more subtle, hidden form of prejudice. Such prejudice is more likely to be expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group. E.g. the belief that black people should be provided with all the opportunities of white people, but as long as white people dont lose out as a result.

Attitudes Towards People cont

PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION

Prejudice can also be expressed through behaviour. This is called discrimination. Discrimination refers to positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members. There are two main forms of discrimination; Direct and Indirect. Direct discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfairly and is disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic. E.g. if someone was overlooked for a job because of their race, sex, age, etc. Indirect discrimination occurs when treating everybody the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic. E.g. if an employer refuses to allow employees to wear any form of head covering in the workplace, this may be indirect discrimination against employees whose cultural or religious background requires that they were a particular type of head covering.

Attitudes Towards People cont

PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION The main difference between prejudice and discrimination is that prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is a behaviour arising from prejudice. When prejudice & discrimination are directed at people who are members of a particular racial or ethnic group, this is called racism. When prejudice & discrimination are directed at women or men because of their sex, this is called sexism. When prejudice & discrimination are directed at people because of their age, this is called ageism. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuQ8bCY6ZzM

Attitudes Towards People cont

PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ye1C8vMqbHA

Ageism

Sexism

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFO1b9I-u5Q

Racism

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irCS2_27ytI

Factors contributing to the development of prejudice

Psychologists believe that there are many different factors that contribute to the development of prejudice. Similar to other attitudes, prejudice is primarily influenced by learning processes, including repeated exposure. In addition, children may also learn prejudices through subtle messages conveyed in the media about groups in our society.
Consider what factors contribute to these childrens attitudes as shown in the clip below. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17fEy0q6yqc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WG7U1QsUd1g http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTYn1WRCuoU

Stereotyping can also lead to prejudice as it often creates an us and them type belief. This belief is shown when we categorise ourselves and others into ingroups and outgroups.

Factors contributing to the development of prejudice cont

INGROUPS AND OUTGROUPS An ingroup is any group that you belong to or identify with. E.g. friendship groups, peer group, family, school, religion, sex, race, culture, the country in which you live, your football team etc. An outgroup is any group you do not belong to or identify with. When we categorise our social world in this way, we tend to believe that people belonging to our ingroups have individual differences but are generally more like us. As a result, we tend to see them in a more positive way and more easily develop loyalty to them. In addition, we tend to consider people belonging to an outgroup to be less like us and more like each other. We are therefore more likely to see them in a negative way.

Factors contributing to the development of prejudice cont

INTERGROUP CONFLICT Prejudice can also develop from intergroup conflict. Intergroup conflict occurs when members of different groups compete to achieve or control something that is wanted by the members of each group. E.g. competition over economic resources like jobs and housing, especially during times of hardship.

Factors contributing to the development of prejudice cont

ATTRIBUTIONS

The process of trying to explain observed behaviour in terms of a particular cause is called attribution. According to psychologists, attribution can be either internal (from within the person) or external (from the environment). This theory helps us to understand the formation of the attitudes we hold about different groups in our society. In particular, attributions are personal, subjective and influenced by individual bias. Research has found that people tend to overestimate the influence of personal characteristics & underestimate the influence of the situation they are in when trying to explain a persons behaviour. This is called the fundamental attribution error. Another type of bias associated with the fundamental attribution error is called the just world hypothesis. This is the tendency for individuals to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve & deserve what they get.

Factors that may reduce prejudice

Findings from research studies indicate that there are several different methods that can help to reduce prejudice and discrimination in our society. Generally no one particular method will effectively eliminate prejudice and discrimination so a number of methods need to be used in combination. Importantly, these must be targeted at the individual as well as society. One way of reducing prejudice is through intergroup contact. This involves increasing contact between groups who are prejudiced against each other. Another way of reducing prejudice is through cognitive interventions. This involves changing the way in which prejudiced people think about prejudice and people who are the victims of prejudice.

Factors that may reduce prejudice cont

INTERGROUP CONTACT Increasing direct contact between two groups who are prejudiced against one another will only be successful in improving their opinions under certain conditions. These include: Sustained contact, Mutual interdependence, Superordinate goals and Equality of status. Sustained contact: contact between the prejudiced groups must be ongoing, either directly or indirectly over a period of time. It is believed that providing opportunities for group members to socialise and exchange information may lead to a re-evaluation of incorrect stereotypes. Reality does not always support this notion, as prejudice still exists. E.g. There is still prejudice between Europeans and Aboriginals.

Factors that may reduce prejudice cont

INTERGROUP CONTACT Mutual interdependence: this is when two groups who dislike and are prejudiced against each other are placed in a contact situation in which they are mutually interdependent- that is, they are dependent on each other. It is hoped that by working together to achieve a goal, there is a greater likelihood that the rivalry and negative stereotypes they have about each other can be broken down, thereby reducing the prejudiced attitudes the groups hold. E.g. the Robbers Cave Experiment conducted by Turkish-born American psychologist Muzafer Sherif (1956). See p351-352.

Factors that may reduce prejudice cont

INTERGROUP CONTACT Superordinate goals: is a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides other existing goals which each group might have. E.g. The Kyoto Protocol on climate change has a superordinate goal for the elimination of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere to minimise global warming. Each country must cooperate by limiting greenhouse emissions for the ultimate goal to be achieved.

Factors that may reduce prejudice cont

INTERGROUP CONTACT Equality of Status: To reduce prejudice, it is crucial that groups have equal status. When status between two groups is not equal, the group members tend to view and treat the other group members differently.

Factors that may reduce prejudice cont

COGNITIVE INTERVENTIONS Some psychologists suggest that if people are aware of the harmful effects of prejudice, they are then in a position to be able to do something about it. This can be achieved through strategies involving cognitive interventions. Cognitive interventions involves changing the way someone thinks about prejudice. Individuals are challenged to re-think the stereotype they are accustomed to applying. This may require getting the person to try and think from another persons point of view rather than simply generalising characteristics. E.g. challenging adolescents often negative views of the elderly.

Measurement of Attitudes
Psychologists use two main approaches to measuring or assessing attitudes. One approach involves observing peoples behaviour, the other involves asking participants to tell the researcher about their attitudes. There are advantages and disadvantages to each approach and for each assessment device. Which approach or assessment device is used depends on the particular attitude under investigation or the situation in which it will be investigated. Collecting information through observation & verbal communication.

Measurement of Attitudes cont

OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES Observational studies involve watching and describing behaviour as it occurs. This approach to measuring attitudes is referred to as an indirect measures as it involves observing what someone has done, then assuming the underlying attitude which may be associated with the observed behaviour. ADV: people are generally unaware that they are being observed, enable flexible research procedures which can be adjusted to suit the topic of research interest, unobtrusive technique, can provide data about attitudes which researchers might not be able to obtain through other measures. DIS: does not always give an accurate indication of a persons attitude because behaviour & attitudes have often been shown to be inconsistent, difficult to measure the strength of the attitude.

Measurement of Attitudes cont

SELF-REPORT METHODS Sometimes researchers are interested in information about attitudes that is impossible to observe. In these situations, self-reports are used. Self-reports are written or spoken answers to questions or statements presented by the researcher. Data which are based on self-reports given by participants are called subjective data. Questions used are either in free-response (open-ended) & fixed-response (closed) form. ADV: Questionnaires & Rating scales are usually simple to complete, can be administered to large numbers of people at the same time & are widely regarded as useful devices for measuring attitudes. DIS: people may lie or exaggerate to create a favourable impression of themselves (called social desirability), they may not remember accurately, misunderstand the questions & are often time-consuming to complete.

Measurement of Attitudes cont

SELF-REPORT METHODS
Questionnaires, surveys and interviews are all examples of self-report methods used to measure attitudes. Rating scales are another self-report device that typically provide a series of fixed-response questions or statements about different aspects of an attitude to which the respondents indicate the extent of their agreement or disagreement. The most commonly used Rating scale in Psychology for measuring attitudes are the Likert-type scales. This scale focuses on measuring the direction of an attitude by providing statements that participants are required to respond to using SA, A, N, D, SD. Half the statements are worded in a positive way, the other half are worded in a negative way. When the responses are scored, the higher the score, generally the more favourable the attitude.

Ethics in conducting research on attitude measurement

All researchers are required to follow ethical standards whenever they conduct a research study, regardless of the research method or data collection technique that will be used. Three important ethical considerations that must be followed are: Respecting Rights: Researchers must respect the rights of their participants by ensuring correct and full information is provided, is fully understood, the participant is voluntarily opting to become involved in the study and their results remain private. Obtaining informed consent: It is essential that the researcher obtains the informed consent of each participant, or the participants legal guardian where appropriate. This process aims to ensure participants are fully aware of the nature of the study and are freely willing to give their permission to take part. Confidentiality: Participants responses to surveys, questionnaires, interviews etc must remain private. When published in a report, it must be impossible to personally identify participants and their results.

Ethics in conducting research on attitude measurement

OTHER ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW INCLUDE: Participants Rights Withdrawal Rights Justice Beneficence Voluntary Participation Deception Debriefing Professional conduct