Contents

Articles
RF Planning Fading Near field communication 1 2 5

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 22 23

Article Licenses
License 24

RF Planning

RF Planning
In the context of mobile radio communication systems, RF Planning is the process of assigning frequencies, transmitter locations and parameters of a wireless communications system to provide sufficient coverage and capacity for the services required. The RF plan of a cellular communication system has two objectives: coverage and capacity. Coverage relates to the geographical footprint within the system that has sufficient RF signal strength to provide for a call/data session. Capacity relates to the capability of the system to sustain a given number of subscribers. Capacity and coverage are interrelated. To improve coverage, capacity has to be sacrificed, while to improve capacity, coverage will have to be sacrificed The RF Planning process consists of four major stages.

Phase 1: Initial Radio Link Budgeting

The first level of the RF planning process is a budgetary level. It uses the RF Link Budget along with a statistical propagation model (e.g. Hata, COST-231 Hata or Erceg-Greenstein) to approximate the coverage area of the planned sites and to eventually determine how many sites are required for the particular RF communication system. The statistical propagation model does not include terrain effects and has a slope and intercept value for each type of environment (Rural, Urban, Suburban, etc.). This fairly simplistic approach allows for a quick analysis of the number of sites that may be required to cover a certain area. Following is a typical list of outputs produced at this stage: Estimated Number of Sites

Phase 2: Detailed RF Propagation Modelling

The second level of the RF Planning process relies a more detailed propagation model. Automatic planning tools are often employed in this phase to perform detailed predictions. The propagation model takes into account the characteristics of the selected antenna, the terrain, and the land use and land clutter surrounding each site. Since these factors are considered, this propagation model provides a better estimate of the coverage of the sites than the initial statistical propagation model. Thus, its use, in conjunction with the RF link budget, produces a more accurate determination of the number of sites required. Following is a typical list of outputs produced at this stage: Number of Sites and Site Locations (and Height) Antenna Directions and Downtilts Neighbour Cell Lists for each site Mobility (Handover and Cell Reselection) Parameters for each site. Frequency Plan Detailed Coverage Predictions (e.g. Signal Strength (RSRP), Signal Quality (RSRQ) Best CINR, Best Server Areas, Uplink and Downlink Throughput)

Phase 3: Fine Tuning and Optimisation

The third phase of the RF planning process incorporates further detail into the RF plan. This stage includes items such as collecting drive data to be used to tune or calibrate the propagation prediction model, predicting the available data throughput at each site, fine tuning of parameter settings (e.g. antenna orientation, downtilting, frequency plan). This process is required in the deployment of the system or in determining service contract based coverage. Following is a typical list of outputs produced at this stage: A final List of Sites and Site Locations (and Height) Optimised Antenna Directions and Downtilts An optimised Neighbour Cell Lists for each site

RF Planning Mobility (Handover and Cell Reselection) Parameters for each site. An optimised Frequency Plan Detailed Coverage Predictions (e.g. Signal Strength (RSRP), Signal Quality (RSRQ) Best CINR, Best Server Areas, Uplink and Downlink Throughput)

Phase 4: Continuous Optimisation

The final phase of the RF planning process involves continuous optimisation of the RF plan to accommodate for changes in the environment or additional service requirements (e.g. additional coverage or capacity). This phase starts from initial network deployment and involves collecting measurement data on a regular basis that could be via drive testing or centralised collection. The data is then used to plan new sites or to optimize the parameter settings (e.g. antenna orientation, downtilting, frequency plan) of existing sites.

External links
An Introduction to LTE RF Planning [1]

References
[1] http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ lteencyclopedia/ lte-radio-link-budgeting-and-rf-planning/ lte-rf-planning

Fading
In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel comprising fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
Frequency-selective time-varying fading causes a cloudy pattern to appear on a spectrogram. Time is shown on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis and signal strength as grey-scale intensity.

Key concepts

The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while travelling from the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.

Fading A common example of multipath fading is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades. Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic communications to model the distortion caused by the water. Mathematically, fading is usually modeled as a time-varying random change in the amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal.

Slow versus fast fading

The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the minimum time required for the magnitude change of the channel to become uncorrelated from its previous value. Alternatively, it may be defined as the maximum time for which the magnitude change of channel is correlated to its previous value. Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The amplitude change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a standard deviation according to the log-distance path loss model. Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the period of use. In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication to a temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully transmitted bits during other time instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered. In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding. The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals travelling along different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a single fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such channels have a very short coherence time. In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed as

where

is the coherence time,

is the Doppler spread (Doppler shift). This equation is just an approximation[1],

to be exact, see Coherence time.

Fading

Flat versus frequency-selective fading

As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading. In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading. In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience decorrelated fading. Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as OFDM and CDMA are well-suited to employing frequency diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by means of error coding, simple equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing a guard interval between the symbols. CDMA uses the Rake receiver to deal with each echo separately. Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each other. Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.

Fading models
Examples of fading models for the distribution of the attenuation are: Dispersive fading models, with several echoes, each exposed to different delay, gain and phase shift, often constant. This results in frequency selective fading and inter-symbol interference. The gains may be Rayleigh or Rician distributed. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model. Nakagami fading Log-normal shadow fading Rayleigh fading Rician fading Weibull fading

Mitigation
Fading can cause poor performance in a communication system because it can result in a loss of signal power without reducing the power of the noise. This signal loss can be over some or all of the signal bandwidth. Fading can also be a problem as it changes over time: communication systems are often designed to adapt to such impairments, but the fading can change faster than the adaptations can be made. In such cases, the probability of experiencing a fade (and associated bit errors as the signal-to-noise ratio drops) on the channel becomes the limiting factor in the link's performance. The effects of fading can be combated by using diversity to transmit the signal over multiple channels that experience independent fading and coherently combining them at the receiver. The probability of experiencing a fade in this composite channel is then proportional to the probability that all the component channels simultaneously experience a fade, a much more unlikely event. Diversity can be achieved in time, frequency, or space. Common techniques used to overcome signal fading include: Diversity reception and transmission MIMO

Fading OFDM Rake receivers Spacetime codes

References
[1] Lars Ahlin & Jens Zander, Principles of Wireless Communications, pp.126-130.

Literature
T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and practice, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002. David Tse and Pramod Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless Communication (http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/ ~dtse/book.html), Cambridge University Press, 2005. M. Awad, K. T. Wong (http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/eie.polyu.edu.hk) & Z. Li, An Integrative Overview of the Open Literature's Empirical Data on the Indoor Radiowave Channel's Temporal Properties, (http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/ktw/AwadAPT0508.pdf) IEEE Transactions on Antennas & Propagation, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 1451-1468, May 2008. P. Barsocchi, Channel models for terrestrial wireless communications: a survey (http://puma.isti.cnr.it/ dfdownload.php?ident=/cnr.isti/2006-TR-16), CNR-ISTI technical report, April 2006.

External links
Fading due to multipath effect (http://www.ylesstech.com/terminology.php?letter=all&id=15)

Near field communication

Near field communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and similar devices to establish radio communication with each other by touching them together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no more than a few centimetres. Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-Fi.[1] Communication is also possible between an NFC device and an unpowered NFC chip, called a "tag".[2]

An NFC-enabled mobile phone interacting with a SmartPoster

NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats, and are based on existing radio-frequency identification (RFID) standards including ISO/IEC 14443 and FeliCa.[3] The standards include ISO/IEC 18092[4] and those defined by the NFC Forum, which was founded in 2004 by Nokia, Philips and Sony, and now has more than 160 members. The Forum also promotes NFC and certifies device compliance.[5]

Near field communication

Uses
NFC builds upon RFID systems by allowing two-way communication between endpoints, where earlier systems such as contactless smart cards were one-way only.[6] Since unpowered NFC "tags" can also be read by NFC devices,[2] it is also capable of replacing earlier one-way applications.

Commerce
NFC devices can be used in contactless payment systems, similar to those currently used in credit cards and electronic ticket smartcards, and allow mobile payment to replace or supplement these systems. For example, Google Wallet allows consumers to store credit card and store loyalty card information in a virtual wallet and then use an NFC-enabled device at terminals that also accept MasterCard PayPass transactions.[7] Germany,[8] Austria[9] and Latvia have trialled NFC ticketing systems for public transport. And China is using it all over the country in public bus transport. In India NFC based transaction is being implemented in box offices for ticketing purposes. Uses of NFC: Matching encrypted security code and transporting access key; Due to short transmission range, NFC-based transactions are possibly secure; Instant payments and coupon delivery using your handset, as we do with your credit card or debit card; Exchange of information such as schedules, maps, business card and coupon delivery in a few hundred milliseconds; Pay for items just by waving your phone over the NFC capable devices Transferring images, posters for displaying and printing

Bluetooth and WiFi connections

NFC offers a low-speed connection with extremely simple setup, and could be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections.[10] It could, for example, replace the pairing step of establishing Bluetooth connections or the configuration of Wi-Fi networks.

Social networking
NFC can be used in social networking situations, such as sharing contacts, photos, videos or files,[11] and entering multiplayer mobile games.[12]

Identity documents
The NFC Forum promotes the potential for NFC-enabled devices to act as electronic identity documents and keycards.[10] As NFC has a short range and supports encryption, it may be more suitable than earlier, less private RFID systems.

History
NFC traces its roots back to Radio-frequency identification, or RFID. RFID allows a reader to send radio waves to a passive electronic tag for identification and tracking. 1983 The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton.[13] 2004 Nokia, Philips and Sony established the Near Field Communication (NFC) Forum[14] 2006 Initial specifications for NFC Tags[15] 2006 Specification for "SmartPoster" records[16]

2006 Nokia 6131 was the first NFC phone[17] 2009 In January, NFC Forum released Peer-to-Peer standards to transfer contact, URL, initiate Bluetooth, etc.[18] 2010 Samsung Nexus S: First Android NFC phone shown[19][20]

Near field communication 2011 Google I/O "How to NFC" demonstrates NFC to initiate a game and to share a contact, URL, app, video, etc.[11] 2011 NFC support becomes part of the Symbian mobile operating system with the release of Symbian Anna version.[21] 2011 RIM 2011 is the first company for its devices to be certified by MasterCard Worldwide, the functionality of PayPass[22] 2012 March. EAT, a well known UK restaurant chain and Everything Everywhere (Orange Mobile Network Operator) partner on the UK's first nationwide NFC enabled smartposter campaign. (lead by Rene' Batsford, Head of ICT for EAT, also known for deploying the UK's first nationwide contactless payment solution in 2008) A specially created mobile phone app is triggered when the NFC enabled mobile phone comes into contact with the smartposter.[23]

Essential specifications
NFC is a set of short-range wireless technologies, typically requiring a distance of 4cm or less. NFC operates at 13.56 MHz on ISO/IEC 18000-3 air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. NFC always involves an initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an RF field that can power a passive target. This enables NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards that do not require batteries. NFC peer-to-peer communication is possible, provided both devices are powered.[6] A patent licensing program for NFC is currently under development by Via Licensing Corporation, an independent subsidiary of Dolby Laboratories. A public, platform-independent NFC library is released under the free GNU Lesser General Public License by the name libnfc.[24] NFC tags contain data and are typically read-only but may be rewriteable. They can be custom-encoded by their manufacturers or use the specifications provided by the NFC Forum, an industry association charged with promoting the technology and setting key standards. The tags can securely store personal data such as debit and credit card information, loyalty program data, PINs and networking contacts, among other information. The NFC Forum defines four types of tags which provide different communication speeds and capabilities in terms of configurability, memory, security, data retention and write endurance. Tags currently offer between 96 and 4,096 bytes of memory. As with proximity card technology, near-field communication uses magnetic induction between two loop antennas located within each other's near field, effectively forming an air-core transformer. It operates within the globally available and unlicensed radio frequency ISM band of 13.56MHz. Most of the RF energy is concentrated in the allowed 7kHz bandwidth range, but the full spectral envelope may be as wide as 1.8MHz when using ASK modulation.[25] Theoretical working distance with compact standard antennas: up to 20cm (practical working distance of about 4 centimetres) Supported data rates: 106, 212 or 424 kbit/s (the bit rate 848 kbit/s is not compliant with the standard ISO/IEC 18092) There are two modes: Passive communication mode: The initiator device provides a carrier fields and the target device answers by modulating the existing field. In this mode, the target device may draw its operating power from the initiator-provided electromagnetic field, thus making the target device a transponder. Active communication mode: Both initiator and target device communicate by alternately generating their own fields. A device deactivates its RF field while it is waiting for data. In this mode, both devices typically have power supplies.

Near field communication

kbit/s

Active device

passive device Manchester, 10% ASK Manchester, 10% ASK

424 kbit/s Manchester, 10% ASK 212 kbit/s Manchester, 10% ASK

106 kbit/s Modified Miller, 100% ASK Manchester, 10% ASK

NFC employs two different codings to transfer data. If an active device transfers data at 106 kbit/s, a modified Miller coding with 100% modulation is used. In all other cases Manchester coding is used with a modulation ratio of 10%. NFC devices are able to receive and transmit data at the same time. Thus, they can check for potential collisions if the received signal frequency does not match with the transmitted signals frequency.

Comparison with Bluetooth

NFC RFID compatible ISO 18000-3 Bluetooth active Bluetooth SIG Bluetooth Low Energy active Bluetooth SIG IEEE 802.15.1 WPAN available

Standardisation body ISO/IEC Network Standard Network Type Cryptography Range Frequency Bit rate Set-up time Power consumption

ISO 13157 etc. IEEE 802.15.1 Point-to-point WPAN

not with RFID available < 0.2 m 13.56MHz 424 kbit/s < 0.1 s

~100 m (class 1) ~50 m 2.42.5GHz 2.1 Mbit/s <6s 2.42.5GHz ~1.0 Mbit/s < 0.006 s

< 15mA (read) varies with class < 15 mA (transmit or receive)

NFC and Bluetooth are both short-range communication technologies which are integrated into mobile phones. As described in technical detail below, NFC operates at slower speeds than Bluetooth, but consumes far less power and doesnt require pairing. NFC sets up faster than standard Bluetooth, but is not faster than Bluetooth low energy. With NFC, instead of performing manual configurations to identify devices, the connection between two NFC devices is automatically established quickly: in less than a tenth of a second. The maximum data transfer rate of NFC (424 kbit/s) is slower than that of Bluetooth V2.1 (2.1 Mbit/s). With a maximum working distance of less than 20cm, NFC has a shorter range, which reduces the likelihood of unwanted interception. That makes NFC particularly suitable for crowded areas where correlating a signal with its transmitting physical device (and by extension, its user) becomes difficult. In contrast to Bluetooth, NFC is compatible with existing passive RFID (13.56MHz ISO/IEC 18000-3) infrastructures. NFC requires comparatively low power, similar to the Bluetooth V4.0 low energy protocol. However, when NFC works with an unpowered device (e.g. on a phone that may be turned off, a contactless smart credit card, a smart poster, etc.), the NFC power consumption is greater than that of Bluetooth V4.0 Low Energy, this is because illuminating the passive tag needs extra power.

Near field communication

Standardization bodies and industry projects

Standards
NFC was approved as an ISO/IEC standard on December 8, 2003 and later as an ECMA standard. NFC is an open platform technology standardized in ECMA-340 and ISO/IEC 18092. These standards specify the modulation schemes, coding, transfer speeds and frame format of the RF interface of NFC devices, as well as initialization schemes and conditions required for data collision-control during initialization for both passive and active NFC modes. Furthermore, they also define the transport protocol, including protocol activation and data-exchange methods. The air interface for NFC is standardized in: ISO/IEC 18092 / ECMA-340 Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol-1 (NFCIP-1)[26] ISO/IEC 21481 / ECMA-352 Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol-2 (NFCIP-2)[27] NFC incorporates a variety of existing standards including ISO/IEC 14443 both Type A and Type B, and FeliCa. NFC enabled phones work basically, at least, with existing readers. Especially in "card emulation mode" a NFC device should transmit, at a minimum, a unique ID number to an existing reader. In addition, the NFC Forum has defined a common data format called NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF [28]), which can store and transport various kinds of items, ranging from any MIME-typed object to ultra-short RTD-documents,[29] such as URLs. The NFC Forum added the Simple NDEF Exchange Protocol to the spec which allows sending and receiving messages between two NFC-enabled devices.[30]

GSMA
The GSM Association (GSMA) is the global trade association representing nearly 800 mobile phone operators and more than 200 product and service companies across 219 countries. Many of its members have led NFC trials around the world and are now preparing services for commercial launch.[31] GSM is involved with several initiatives: Standard setting: GSMA is developing certification and testing standards to ensure the global interoperability of NFC services.[31] The Pay-Buy-Mobile initiative seeks to define a common global approach to using Near Field Communications (NFC) technology to link mobile devices with payment and contactless systems.[32][33] On November 17, 2010, after two years of discussions, AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile launched a joint venture intended to develop a single platform on which technology based on the Near Field Communication (NFC) specifications can be used by their customers to make mobile payments. The new venture, known as ISIS [34], is designed to usher in the broad deployment of NFC technology, allowing NFC-enabled cell phones to function similarly to credit cards for the 200 million customers using cell phone service provided by any of the three carriers throughout the United States.

Near field communication

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StoLPaN
StoLPaN (Store Logistics and Payment with NFC) is a pan-European consortium supported by the European Commissions Information Society Technologies program. StoLPaN will examine the as yet untapped potential for the new kind of local wireless interface, NFC and mobile communication.

NFC Forum
The NFC Forum is a non-profit industry association formed on March 18, 2004, by NXP Semiconductors, Sony and Nokia to advance the use of NFC short-range wireless interaction in consumer electronics, mobile devices and PCs. The NFC Forum promotes implementation and standardization of NFC technology to ensure interoperability between devices and services. As of March 2011, the NFC Forum had 135 member companies.[35]

Alternative Form Factors

To realize the benefits of NFC in cellphones not yet equipped with built in NFC chips a new line of complementary devices were created. MicroSD and UICC SIM cards were developed to incorporate industry standard contactless smartcard chips with ISO14443 interface, with or without built-in antenna. The microSD and SIM form factors with built-in antenna have the great potential as bridge devices to shorten the time to market of contactless payment and couponing applications, while the built in NFC contollers gain enough market share.

Other standardization bodies

Other standardization bodies that are involved in NFC include: ETSI / SCP (Smart Card Platform) to specify the interface between the SIM card and the NFC chipset. GlobalPlatform to specify a multi-application architecture of the secure element. EMVCo for the impacts on the EMV payment applications

Security aspects
Although the communication range of NFC is limited to a few centimeters, NFC alone does not ensure secure communications. In 2006, Ernst Haselsteiner and Klemens Breitfu described different possible types of attacks, and detail how to leverage NFC's resistance to Man-in-the-middle attacks to establish a specific key.[36] Unfortunately, as this technique is not part of the ISO standard, NFC offers no protection against eavesdropping and can be vulnerable to data modifications. Applications may use higher-layer cryptographic protocols (e.g., SSL) to establish a secure channel. Ensuring security for NFC data will require the cooperation of multiple parties: device providers, who will need to safeguard NFC-enabled phones with strong cryptography and authentication protocols; customers, who will need to protect their personal devices and data with passwords, keypad locks, and anti-virus software; and application providers and transaction parties, who will need to use anti-virus and other security solutions to prevent spyware and malware from infecting systems.[37]

Eavesdropping
The RF signal for the wireless data transfer can be picked up with antennas. The distance from which an attacker is able to eavesdrop the RF signal depends on numerous parameters, but is typically a small number of metres.[38] Also, eavesdropping is highly affected by the communication mode. A passive device that doesn't generate its own RF field is much harder to eavesdrop on than an active device. One open source device that is able to eavesdrop on passive and active NFC communications is the Proxmark instrument.[39]

Near field communication

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Data modification
It is relatively easy to destroy data by using an RFID jammer. There is no way currently to prevent such an attack. However, if NFC devices check the RF field while they are sending, it is possible to detect attacks. It is much more difficult to modify data in such a way that it appears to be valid to users. To modify transmitted data, an intruder has to deal with the single bits of the RF signal. The feasibility of this attack, (i.e., if it is possible to change the value of a bit from 0 to 1 or the other way around), is amongst others subject to the strength of the amplitude modulation. If data is transferred with the modified Miller coding and a modulation of 100%, only certain bits can be modified. A modulation ratio of 100% makes it possible to eliminate a pause of the RF signal, but not to generate a pause where no pause has been. Thus, only a 1 which is followed by another 1 might be changed. Transmitting Manchester-encoded data with a modulation ratio of 10% permits a modification attack on all bits.

Relay attack
Because NFC devices usually include ISO/IEC 14443 protocols, the relay attacks described are also feasible on NFC.[40][41] For this attack the adversary has to forward the request of the reader to the victim and relay back its answer to the reader in real time, in order to carry out a task pretending to be the owner of the victims smart card. For more information see a survey of practical relay attack concepts.[42] One of libnfc [43] code examples demonstrates a relay attack [44] using only two stock commercial NFC devices. It has also been shown that this attack can be practically implemented using only two NFC-enabled mobile phones.[45]

Lost property
Losing the NFC RFID card or the mobile phone will open access to any finder and act as a single-factor authenticating entity. Mobile phones protected by a PIN code acts as a single authenticating factor. A way to defeat the lost-property threat requires an extended security concept that includes more than one physically independent authentication factor.

Walk-off
Lawfully opened access to a secure NFC function or data is protected by time-out closing after a period of inactivity. Attacks may happen despite provisions to shutdown access to NFC after the bearer has become inactive. The known concepts described primarily do not address the geometric distance of a fraudulent attacker using a lost communication entity against lawful access from the actual location of the registered bearer. Additional feature to cover such attack scenario dynamically shall make use of a second wireless authentication factor that remains with the bearer in case of lost NFC communicator. Relevant approaches are described as an electronic leash or its equivalent, a wireless key.

NFC-enabled handsets
In 2011 several handset vendors released more than 40 NFC-enabled handsets. According to analyst firm Berg Insight, global sales of handsets featuring Near Field Communication (NFC) increased ten-fold in 2011 to 30 million units. Growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 87.8 percent, shipments are forecasted to reach 700 million units in 2016.[46]

Project trials and full-scale deployments

Several hundred NFC trials have been conducted to date. While NFC trials continue, some firms have moved to full-scale service deployments, spanning either a single country or multiple countries. As a consequence, programs listed below date from 2010 forward and are cited for ease-of-reference. Programs were updated through April 2011. Multi-country deployments include:

Near field communication Multiple European countries: Orange and operators, banks, retailers, transport, and service providers.[47] Africa: Airtel Africa, Oberthur Technologies (15 countries)[48]

12

Africa
Libya Mobile payments: LPTIC, Al Madar, Libyana[49] South Africa Public transport: Aconite, Proxema[50] Mobile payments : Absa[51]

Europe
Austria Public transport: Mobilkom Austria (A1), BB, Vienna Lines[52] Belgium Mobile payments: Belgacom, Mobistar, Base[53] Paper vouchers study: IBBT, Clear2Pay/Integri, Keyware, Accor Services[54] Czech Republic Mobile payments: Telefnica O2 Czech Republic, Komern banka, Citibank Europe, Globus, Visa Europe, Baumax, Cinema City, Ikea[55] NFC social board game: NFCengine launched in 2011 NFC based social board game, with several virtual, entertaining and marketing layers. Denmark "NFC Payment" [56] (public event), Roskilde Festival, Danmark: NFC, 140.000 visitors. Mobile payment vending machines: NFC & SMS payment, CocaCola and Microsoft, NFC Danmark.[57] France Home healthcare: ADMR,[58] Extelia, Inside Contactless, Abrapa[59] Field service: Orange France[60] Event ticketing: Stade de France, Orange[61] Museum services: Centre Pompidou[62] National NFC infrastructure: Paris, Bordeaux, Caen, Lille, Marseille, Rennes, Strasbourg, Toulouse, Nice, French Government[63] Nice, Ville NFC: AFSCM (Orange, Bouygues Telecom, SFR, NRJ Mobile), Gemalto, Oberthur Technologies, multi-bank (BNP Paribas, Groupe Crdit Mutuel-CIC, Crdit Agricole, Socit Gnrale) with MasterCard, Visa Europe, Airtag, Toro, ConnectThings, Veolia Transport, Adelya and more (to be completed) Loyalty programs: La Croissanterie, Rica Lewis, Game in Nice[64] Public transport: Veolia Transport in Nice[65]

Near field communication Germany Public transport (selected regions): VRR, RMV and Deutsche Bahn (combines the companies previous HandyTicket and Touch & Travel programs)[66] Mobile payment: Deutsche Telekom, Vodafone Germany, Telefonica 02 Germany[67] Health insurance card: All public health insurance providers Hungary Event ticketing: Sziget Festival, Vodafone Hungary[68] Ireland Loyalty program: AIB Merchant Services (Allied Irish Bank, First Data), Zapa Technology[69] Israel The First NFC news&shop website:NFC-Israel [70][71] Italy Mobile payment: Telecom Italia. Public transport: ATM[72] Contactless payment cards: Intesa Sanpaolo, Mastercard, Gemalto[73] Lithuania Mobile payments: Mokipay[74] The Netherlands Public transport: OV-chipkaart Commercial services: T-Mobile, Vodafone, KPN, Rabobank, ABN Amro, ING[75] Employee payments: Rabobank, Multicard[76] Poland Mobile payments: Polkomtel, Bank Zachodni WBK;[77] PTC, Inteligo;[78] Orange, Bank Zachodni WBK[79][80] Romania Public transport: Metrorex,[81] RATT[82] and RATB[83] Russia Public transport: Moscow Metro and Mobile TeleSystems[84] Slovenia Mobile payments, marketing: Banka Koper, Cassis International, Inside Contactless, System Orga, Mobitel[85] Spain Mobile shopping: Telefonica, Visa, La Caixa (Sitges)[86] Public transport: Bankinter, Ericsson, Empresa Municipal de Transportes (Madrid);[87] Vodafone, Entidad Publica del Transporte (Murcia)[88] Event product payments: Mobile World Congress, GSMA, Telefonica, Visa, Samsung, Giesecke & Devrient, Ingenico, ITN International, La Caixa[89]

13

Near field communication Employee payment, building access: Telefonica Espana, La Caixa, BBVA, Bankinter, Visa, Samsung, Oberthur, Autogrill, Giesecke & Devrient[90] Sweden Airline Smart Pass: SAS Scandinavian Airlines introduces an NFC-based Smart Pass for frequent flyers, and the aviation industrys adoption of NFC is now truly underway.[91] Hotel keys: Choice Hotels Scandinavia, Assa Abloy, TeliaSonera, VingCard Elsafe, Venyon (Stockholm)[92] Transportation: Pay as you go in Southern Sweden with NFC enabled "Jojo cards" [93] Switzerland Phone service kiosk: Sicap, Swisscom[94] Turkey Yap ve Kredi Bankas and Turkcell, NFC is used on mobile payment all over Turkey with Yap ve Kredi Bankas credit cards via mobile phones using Turkcell sim cards[95][96] Mobile payments: Yapi Kredi, Turkcell, Wireless Dynamics;[97] Avea, Garanti Bank, Gemalto[98] Device testing: Visa Europe, Akbank[99] United Kingdom Contactless payment: Transport for London[100] Transport study: Department for Transport, Consult Hyperion[101] Mobile payments: Waspit, Yates;[102] Barclaycard and Everything Everywhere (Orange, T-Mobile)[103]

14

North America
Canada Contactless Payment Cards: MasterCard Paypass, Visa PayWave Mobile wallet: Zoompass, offered by Bell Mobility, Rogers and Telus (Enstream)[104] Public Transit: Presto Card TAPmeTAGS Opens In Canada: Offered by Synaptic Vision Inc., Tapmetags [105] = NFC World [106] | - April 4, 2012. United States Device trial: Bank of America, Device Fidelity;[107] US Bank, Device Fidelity, FIS, Montise[108] Mobile payments: AT&T, Verizon, T-Mobile;[109] Adirondack Trust;[110] Community State Bank;[111] Bankers Bank of the West;[112] PayPal;[113] Bank of America;[114] US Bank;[115] Wells Fargo;[116] Blackboard;[117] Google Wallet[118] Community Marketing and Business Rating: Google Places: Portland, OR; Austin, TX; Las Vegas, NV; Madison, WI; Charlotte, NC.[119] Public transit: Visa, New York City Transit, NJ Transit, The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, Chicago Transit Authority, LA Metro (New York, New Jersey, Los Angeles, CA)[120]

Near field communication

15

Asia and Oceania

Australia Mobile payments: m Payments Pty Ltd[121] Contactless Micro Payment Cards: m Payments Pty Ltd[122] Contactless Payment and Loyalty: m Payments Pty Ltd[122] Mobile payments: Visa and ANZ Banking Group[123] Mobile payments: PayPass and Facebook and Commonwealth Bank Australia[124] China Mobile payments: China Unicom, Bank of Communications, China UnionPay[125] Mobile transport ticketing: China Unicom[126] Hong Kong Contactless Payment/Public Transit: Octopus Card India Mobile banking: A Little World;[127] Citibank India[128] Tata Docomo, MegaSoft XIUS (Hyderabad)[129] PayMate have partnered Nokia to deploy NFC payment solution for mass market in India through Nokia NFC enabled handsets.[130] Tagstand partnered with Paymate to deploy an NFC marketing campaign for Nokia and the movie Ra-One in priority partner stores across India.[131] Japan Consumer services: Softbank Mobile, Credit Saison, Orient Corporation[132] Consumer services: KDDI, Toyota, Orient Corporation, Credit Saison, Aiwa Card Services, Mastercard, Nomura Research Institute, All Nippon Airways, Japan Airlines, Toho Cinemas, Dai Nippon Printing, NTT Data, T-Engine, IBM, Japan Remote Control Co., Hitachi, Gemalto[133] Consumer services: NTT Docomo and KT[134] Social networking: Mixi[135] Malaysia Clixster Maxis FastTap Philippines Consumer and commercial services : Jollibee Happyplus Card Xcite Republic : J Centre Mall South Korea Consumer and commercial services: KT solo and with NTT Docomo[136] Cross-border services (with Japan): SK Telecom, KDDI, Softbank[137] Mobile payment: SK Telecom, Hana SK Card[138] Guided shopping: SK Telecom[139]

Near field communication Singapore Mobile payments:MasterCard, DBS Bank, StarHub, EZ-Link, Gemalto[140] Sri Lanka Consumer services: Sri Lanka Telecom Mobitel, Sony Corporation[141] Thailand Mobile payments: Kasikorn Bank, AIS, Gemalto[142]

16

Latin America
Brazil Mobile payments: Oi Paggo, Germaltos Upteq N-Flex[143]

Middle East
Iran Mobile NFC payment is launched by Padisarco in Iran for the first time 2011.[144]

Notes
[1] "What is NFC?" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ aboutnfc/ ). NFC Forum. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [2] Nikhila (26 October 2011). "NFC - future of wireless communication" (http:/ / www. gadgetronica. com/ blog/ near-field-communication. html). Gadgetronica. . [3] "Technical Specifications" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ specs/ spec_list/ ). NFC Forum. . Retrieved 11 December 2011. [4] "ISO/IEC 18092:2004 Information technology -- Telecommunications and information exchange between systems -- Near Field Communication -- Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)" (http:/ / www. iso. org/ iso/ catalogue_detail. htm?csnumber=38578). ISO. . Retrieved 11 December 2011. [5] "About the Forum" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ aboutus/ ). NFC Forum. . Retrieved 7 May 2012. [6] Nosowitz, Dan (1 March 2011). "Everything You Need to Know About Near Field Communication" (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ gadgets/ article/ 2011-02/ near-field-communication-helping-your-smartphone-replace-your-wallet-2010/ ). Popular Science Magazine. Popular Science. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [7] "Google Wallet - where it works" (http:/ / www. google. com/ wallet/ where-it-works. html). Google. . Retrieved 11 December 2011. Current participating retailers include: Macy's, American Eagle, and Subway. [8] "Germany: Transit Officials Enable Users to Tap or Scan in New Trial" (http:/ / www. nfctimes. com/ project/ germany-transit-officials-enable-users-tap-and-scan-new-trial). NFC Times. February 11, 2011. . [9] "Austria: Rollout Uses NFC Reader Mode To Sell Tickets and Snacks" (http:/ / www. nfctimes. com/ project/ austria-rollout-uses-nfc-reader-mode-sell-tickets-and-snacks). NFC Times. March 1, 2011. . [10] "NFC as Technology Enabler" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ aboutnfc/ tech_enabler/ ). NFC Forum. . Retrieved 15 June 2011. [11] Pelly, Nick; Hamilton, Jeff (10 May 2011). "How to NFC" (http:/ / www. google. com/ events/ io/ 2011/ sessions/ how-to-nfc. html). Google I/O 2011. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [12] "NFC will catch on like wildfire says Sundance festival game creator" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 20/ 36516/ nfc-will-catch-on-like-wildfire-says-sundance-festival-game-creator/ ). Near Field Communications World. 20 March 2011. . [13] Charles A. Walton "Portable radio frequency emitting identifier" U.S. Patent 4,384,288 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=4,384,288) issue date May 17, 1983 [14] "kia, Philips and Sony established the Near Field Communication (NFC) Forum" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ news/ pr/ view?item_key=d8968a33b4812e2509e5b74247d1366dc8ef91d8). NFC Forum. 18 Mar 2004. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [15] "NFC Forum Unveils Technology Architecture And Announces Initial Specifications And Mandatory Tag Format Support" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ news/ pr/ view?item_key=0b210bbd23e9c1a07cb3d975e6317d1d650ed51f). 05 Jun 2006. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [16] "NFC Forum Publishes Specification For "SmartPoster" Records" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ news/ pr/ view?item_key=d58874aa69a4e57f7ce2314af283a41b372833e7). 5 October 2006. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [17] "Nokia 6131 NFC" (http:/ / www. phonearena. com/ phones/ Nokia-6131-NFC_id1884). 7 Jan 2007. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [18] "NFC Forum Announces Two New Specifications to Foster Device Interoperability and Peer-to-Peer Device Communication" (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ news/ pr/ view?item_key=088d874025e1049cd9c772ea508f4630ebf079b8). 19 May 2009. . Retrieved 14 June 2011.

Near field communication

[19] "Video: Google CEO talks Android, Gingerbread, and Chrome OS" (http:/ / blogs. computerworld. com/ 17368/ google_android_gingerbread_chrome_os). Computerworld. 16 November 2010. . Retrieved 14 June 2011. [20] "Gingerbread feature: Near Field Communication" (http:/ / www. androidcentral. com/ gingerbread-feature-near-field-communication). Android Central. 21 Dec 2010. . Retrieved 15 June 2011. [21] Clark, Sarah (18 August 2011). "Nokia releases Symbian Anna NFC update" (http:/ / www. nfcworld. com/ 2011/ 08/ 18/ 39164/ nokia-releases-symbian-anna-nfc-update/ ). . Retrieved 31 August 2011. [22] RIM Scores MasterCard NFC Certification (http:/ / mobilemarketingmagazine. com/ content/ rim-scores-mastercard-nfc-certification) [23] (http:/ / www. orange. co. uk/ treats) [24] LibNFC (http:/ / www. libnfc. org/ ), . [25] Patauner, C, "High Speed RFID/NFC at the Frequency of 13.56 MHz" (http:/ / www. eurasip. org/ Proceedings/ Ext/ RFID2007/ pdf/ s1p4. pdf) (PDF), EuraSIP, . [26] Ecma International: Standard ECMA-340, Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1) (http:/ / www. ecma-international. org/ publications/ standards/ Ecma-340. htm), December 2004 [27] Ecma International: Standard ECMA-352, Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol2 (NFCIP-2) (http:/ / www. ecma-international. org/ publications/ standards/ Ecma-352. htm), December 2003 [28] http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ specs/ [29] NFC-forum.org (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ specs/ ) [30] Electronista Article: New NFC spec lets two phones swap messages (http:/ / www. electronista. com/ articles/ 11/ 09/ 29/ nfc. revision. allows. peer. to. peer. message. sending/ #ixzz1Zuj6DGxH), October 2011 [31] World's leading mobile operators announce commitment to NFC technology, GSMA press release, corporate website, February 21, 2011. (http:/ / gsmworld. com/ newsroom/ press-releases/ 2011/ 6057. htm) [32] GSM Association Aims For Global Point Of Sale Purchases by Mobile Phone (http:/ / gsmworld. com/ newsroom/ press-releases/ 1990. htm#nav-6), GSM Association, 13 February 2007 [33] Momentum Builds Around GSMA's Pay-Buy Mobile Project (http:/ / www. gsmworld. com/ news/ press_2007/ press07_33. shtml), GSM Association, 25 April 2007 [34] http:/ / www. paywithisis. com/ [35] Near Field Communication Forum Announces 32 New Members, NFC Forum Press Release, March 31, 2011. (http:/ / www. nfc-forum. org/ news/ pr/ view?item_key=56897139ae16c4bc8240498410069bdb8044c098) [36] Ernst Haselsteiner, Klemens Breitfu: Security in near field communication (NFC) (http:/ / events. iaik. tugraz. at/ RFIDSec06/ Program/ papers/ 002 - Security in NFC. pdf)PDF(158KB), Philips Semiconductors, Printed handout of Workshop on RFID Security RFIDSec 06, July 2006 [37] Harley Geiger, NFC Phones Raise Opportunities, Privacy and Security Issues (http:/ / www. cdt. org/ blogs/ harley-geiger/ nfc-phones-raise-opportunities-privacy-and-security-issues), Center for Democracy and Technology, April 11, 2011. [38] Hancke, Gerhard P (July 2008), "Eavesdropping Attacks on High-Frequency RFID Tokens" (http:/ / www. rfidblog. org. uk/ research. html#eavesdrop2008), 4th Workshop on RFID Security (RFIDsec'08), pp.10013, . [39] Proxmark (http:/ / www. proxmark. org/ ), . [40] Gerhard P. Hancke: A practical relay attack on ISO/IEC 14443 proximity cards (http:/ / www. rfidblog. org. uk/ research. html#relay), February 2005. [41] Timo Kasper et al. 2007 [42] Gerhard P. Hancke, et al.: Confidence in Smart Token Proximity: Relay Attacks Revisited (http:/ / www. rfidblog. org. uk/ research. html#relay2009) [43] http:/ / www. libnfc. org/ [44] http:/ / www. libnfc. org/ documentation/ examples/ nfc-relay/ [45] Lishoy Francis, et al.: Practical Relay Attack on Contactless Transactions by Using NFC Mobile Phones (http:/ / eprint. iacr. org/ 2011/ 618) [46] Berg Insight (http:/ / www. berginsight. com) [47] "Orange to roll out NFC services across Europe in 2011" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 12/ 16/ 35498/ orange-to-roll-out-nfc-services-across-europe-in-2011/ ), NFC World, December 10, 2010, . [48] "Airtel Africa to launch NFC services in 15 African countries" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 14/ 35993/ airtel-africa-to-launch-nfc-services-in-fifteen-african-countries/ ), NFC World, February 14, 2011, . [49] "Libyan mobile operators test new NFC solution from Nokia Siemens Networks and More Magic" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 15/ 36022/ libyan-mobile-operators-test-new-nfc-solution-from-nokia-siemens-networks-and-moremagic/ ), NFC World, February 15, 2011, . [50] "Aconite brings NFC to South African transport system" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 29/ 36678/ aconite-brings-nfc-to-south-african-transport-system/ ), NFC World, March 29, 2011, . [51] "Absa in NFC smartphone payments trial" (http:/ / www. absa. co. za/ Absacoza/ Media-Centre/ Press-Statements/ Cellphones-as-payment-devices), Absa, December 6, 2011, . [52] NFC (http:/ / www. nfc. at/ ), AT, . [53] "Belgian banks and mobile operators to launch SMS and NFC mobile payments service in 2011" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 10/ 35874/

17

Near field communication

belgian-banks-and-mobile-operators-to-launch-sms-and-nfc-mobile-payments-service-in-2011/ ), Near Field Communications World, February 10, 2011, . [54] "Belgian Group Reports on Two Year NFC Voucher Study" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 03/ 08/ 32983/ belgian-group-reports-on-two-year-nfc-voucher-study/ ), Near Field Communications World, March 8, 2011, . [55] "Czech Banks and Supermarket to Test NFC with Telefnica O2" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 31/ 36771/ czech-banks-and-supermarket-to-test-nfc-with-telefonica-o2/ ), Near Field Communications World NFC World, March 31, 2011, . [56] http:/ / www. nfc. dk/ [57] NFC (http:/ / www. nfc. dk/ ), DK, . [58] "France national home care services association to roll out NFC services" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 03/ 24/ 33277/ french-national-home-care-services-association-to-rollout-nfc-services/ ), Near Field Communications World, March 24, 2010, . [59] "Consortium wins funding to develop specialist NFC TSM for home healthcare services" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 10/ 15/ 34701/ consortium-funding-nfc-tsm-tpp-healthcare/ ), NFC World, October 15, 2010, . [60] "Orange France launches NFC time and attendance service" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 06/ 14/ 33925/ orange-france-launches-nfc-time-and-attendance-service/ ), Near Field Communications World NFC World, June 14, 2010, . [61] "Frances top sporting venue to adopt NFC ticketing" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 07/ 21/ 34175/ frances-top-sporting-venue-to-adopt-nfc-ticketing/ ), NFC World, July 21, 2010, . [62] "Centre Pompidous Teen Gallery lets young people test NFC", NFC World, November 19, 2010. [63] "French government funds nine NFC cities" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 01/ 13/ 35630/ french-government-funds-nine-nfc-cities/ ), NFC World, January 13, 2011, . [64] "French retailers begin the move to NFC loyalty programmes" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 06/ 17/ 33943/ french-retailers-begin-the-move-to-nfc-loyalty-programmes/ ), NFC World, June 17, 2010, . [65] "Veolia Transport to add NFC and 2D barcodes to 1,500 bus and tram stops in Nice region" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 04/ 21/ 33450/ veolia-transport-to-add-nfc-and-2d-barcodes-to-1500-bus-and-tram-stops-in-nice-region/ ), NFC World, April 21, 2010, . [66] "Transport operators Deutsche Bahn and RMV to co-operate on national NFC ticketing system for Germany" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 03/ 36340/ transport-operators-deutsche-bahn-and-rmv-to-co-operate-on-national-nfc-ticketing-system-for-germany/ ), NFC World, March 3, 2011, . [67] "Deutsche Telekom details T-Mobile NFC rollout plans" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 21/ 36117/ deutsche-telekom-details-t-mobile-nfc-rollout-plans/ ), NFC World, February 21, 2011, . [68] "Vodafone brings NFC payments to Hungarys Sziget Festival" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 04/ 14/ 37000/ vodafone-brings-nfc-payments-to-hungarys-sziget-festival/ ), NFC World, April 14, 2011, . [69] "First Data joint venture to offer mobile contactless loyalty service to merchants in UK and Ireland" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 08/ 27/ 34371/ first-data-joint-venture-to-offer-mobile-contactless-loyalty-service-to-merchants-in-uk-and-ireland/ ), NFC World, August 27, 2010, . [70] http:/ / www. NFC-Israel. co. il [71] NFC Israel (http:/ / www. nfc-Israel. co. il), . [72] "Milan to get NFC ticketing system" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 28/ 36639/ milan-to-get-nfc-ticketing-system/ ), NFC World, March 28, 2011, . [73] "Poland and Italy commit to contactless payments" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 01/ 21/ 32572/ poland-and-italy-commit-to-contactless-payments/ ), NFC World, January 21, 2010, . [74] "Omnitel launches national NFC service in Lithuania" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 07/ 11/ 38528/ omnitel-launches-national-nfc-service-in-lithuania/ ), NFC World, July 11, 2011, . [75] "Dutch banks and mobile operators to launch national NFC service" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 09/ 09/ 34439/ dutch-banks-and-mobile-operators-to-launch-national-nfc-service/ ), NFC World, September 9, 2010, . [76] "Rabobank adds NFC stickers to MiniTix mobile wallet" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 28/ 36666/ rabobank-adds-nfc-stickers-to-minitix-mobile-wallet/ ), NFC World, March 28, 2011, . [77] "Polkomtel and BZ WBK bank to run NFC trial in three Polish cities" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 04/ 29/ 33552/ polkomtel-and-bz-wbk-bank-to-run-nfc-trial-in-three-polish-cities/ ), NFC World, April 29, 2010, . [78] "PTC Inteligo and Mastercard test NFC payments in Poland" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 06/ 10/ 33916/ ptc-inteligo-and-mastercard-test-nfc-payments-in-poland/ ), Near Field Communications World, June 10, 2010, . [79] "Orange launches NFC payments trial in Poland" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 21/ 36546/ orange-launches-nfc-payments-trial-in-poland/ ), NFC World, March 21, 2011, . [80] (in Polish) Telepolis (http:/ / www. telepolis. pl/ news. php?id=20930), PL, 3 October 2010, . [81] "Aces ultrarapi la metrou cu cardul contactless instant pay de la BRD" (http:/ / www. efin. ro/ stiri_financiare/ produse_financiare/ acces_ultrarapid_la_metrou_cu_cardul_contactless_instant_pay_de_la_brd. html) (in Romanian), Efin, RO, [82] "Taxare" (http:/ / www. ratt. ro/ taxare/ ), Ratt, RO, . [83] "Portofelul electronic este o facilitate a Cardului ACTIV ce poate fi activata prin centrele RATB de emitere si reincarcare carduri" (http:/ / card. ratb. ro/ ), RATB, RO, . [84] Mosmetro (http:/ / engl. mosmetro. ru/ pages/ page_1. php?id_page=56& id_text=956), RU, .

18

Near field communication

[85] "Banka Koper begins NFC payments and promotions trial in Slovenia" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 02/ 11/ 32693/ banka-koper-begins-nfc-payments-and-promotions-trial-in-slovenia/ ), NFC World, February 10, 2010, . [86] "Sitges trial results: Consumers pay more often and spend more with NFC phones than with cards" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 01/ 07/ 35576/ sitges-trial-results-consumers-pay-more-often-and-spend-more-with-nfc-phones-than-with-cards/ ), NFC World, January 7, 2011, . [87] "NFC bus ticketing trial to take place in Madrid" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 02/ 12/ 32732/ nfc-bus-ticketing-trial-to-take-place-in-madrid/ ), NFC World, February 12, 2010, . [88] "Vodafone and EPT launch NFC bus ticketing service in Murcia, Spain" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 28/ 36634/ vodafone-and-ept-launch-nfc-bus-ticketing-service-in-murcia-spain/ ), NFC World, March 28, 2011, . [89] "NFC trial begins at Mobile World Congress" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 02/ 15/ 32738/ nfc-trial-begins-at-mobile-world-congress/ ), NFC World, February 15, 2010, . [90] "Telefonica staff to test NFC payments and access control" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 04/ 01/ 36825/ telefonica-staff-to-test-nfc-payments-and-access-control/ ), NFC World, April 1, 2011, . [91] "SAS Scandinavian Airlines introduces an NFC-based Smart Pass for frequent flyers" (http:/ / www. futuretravelexperience. com/ 2011/ 06/ sas-launches-nfc-smart-pass/ ). Future Travel Experience. 2011-6. . [92] "NFC phones replace room keys and eliminate check-in at Swedish hotel" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 11/ 03/ 34886/ nfc-keys-hotel-sweden/ ), NFC World, November 3, 2010, . [93] Sknetrafiken (http:/ / www. skanetrafiken. se/ templates/ InformationPage. aspx?id=13848& epslanguage=EN), . [94] "Swisscom prepaid customers top up at in-store NFC kiosks" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 04/ 08/ 36941/ swisscom-prepaid-customers-top-up-at-in-store-nfc-kiosks/ ), Near Field Communications World, April 8, 2011, . [95] (in Turkish) World Mobil deme zellii: PayMobile (http:/ / www. worldcard. com. tr/ worldu-taniyin/ paymobile/ ), TR: Worldcard, . [96] Turkcell Cep-T Czdan (http:/ / www. turkcell. com. tr/ bireysel/ servisler/ ceptfinans/ turkcellceptcuzdan), TR, . [97] "Yapi Kredi Bank and Turkcell to launch NFC payments service using Visas iPhone add-on" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 01/ 31/ 35801/ yapi-kredi-bank-and-turkcell-to-launch-nfc-payments-service-using-visa-iphone-add-on/ ), NFC World, January 31, 2011, . [98] "Garanti Bank and Ave to launch commercial NFC service in Turkey in July" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 05/ 14/ 33657/ garanti-bank-and-avea-to-launch-commercial-nfc-service-in-turkey-in-july/ ), NFC World, May 14, 2010, . [99] "Turkeys Akbank and Visa Europe to test microsD NFC device" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 08/ 09/ 34266/ turkeys-akbank-and-visa-europe-to-test-microsd-nfc-device/ ), NFC World, August 9, 2010, . [100] "Transport for London confirms plans to accept contactless cards in time for Olympics" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 27/ 36204/ transport-for-london-confirms-plans-to-accept-contactless-cards-in-time-for-olympics/ ), NFC World, February 27, 2011, . [101] "UKs Dept for Transport reports on 18-month NFC ticketing project" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 04/ 13/ 33371/ uks-dept-for-transport-reports-on-18-month-nfc-ticketing-project/ ), NFC World, April 13, 2010, . [102] "Pub chain Yatess partners with Waspit for launch of NFC payments service in the UK" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 11/ 01/ 34842/ pub-chain-yatess-partners-with-waspit-for-launch-of-nfc-payments-service-in-the-uk/ ), NFC World, November 1, 2010, . [103] "Orange and Barclaycard set date for UKs first commercial NFC service" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 01/ 27/ 35762/ orange-and-barclaycard-set-date-for-uks-first-commercial-nfc-service/ ), NFC World, January 27, 2011, . [104] "Enstream begins Zoompass Mobile Payments Sticker Trial" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 03/ 04/ 32909/ enstream-begins-zoompass-mobile-payments-sticker-trial/ ), NFC World, March 4, 2010, . [105] http:/ / www. tapmetags. com [106] http:/ / www. nfcworld. com/ 2012/ 04/ 04/ 314998/ tapmetags-opens-in-canada/ [107] "Bank of America NFC trial to focus on customer experience" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 10/ 15/ 34687/ bank-of-america-nfc-trial-to-focus-on-customer-experience/ ), NFC World, October 15, 2010, . [108] "US Bank begins testing microSD based NFC payments service" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 11/ 19/ 35160/ us-bank-begins-testing-microsd-based-nfc-payments-service/ ), NFC World, November 15, 2010, . [109] "AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile to test NFC payments in the US" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 08/ 02/ 34188/ att-verizon-and-t-mobile-to-test-nfc-payments-in-the-us/ ), NFC World, August 2, 2010, . [110] "Adirondack Trust launches mobile contactless payments in New York State" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 03/ 24/ 33313/ adirondack-trust-launches-mobile-contactless-payments-in-new-york-state/ ), NFC World, March 24, 2010, . [111] "Bling Nation signs up additional Colorado bank for mobile contactless payments" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 04/ 27/ 33472/ bling-nation-signs-up-additional-colorado-bank-for-mobile-contactless-payments/ ), NFC World, April 27, 2010, . [112] "Bankers Bank of the West to offer Bling Nations payment services to its 330 member banks" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 05/ 13/ 33634/ bankers-bank-of-the-west-to-offer-bling-nations-payments-service-to-its-330-member-banks/ ), NFC World, May 13, 2010, . [113] "PayPal begins move into retail store payments with Bling Nation pilot" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 07/ 14/ 34116/ paypal-begins-move-into-retail-store-payments-with-bling-nation-pilot/ ), NFC World, July 14, 2010, .

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[114] Collins, Hugh (2010-10-14). "Bank of America, Visa to Test Smartphone Payment Program" (http:/ / www. dailyfinance. com/ story/ company-news/ bank-of-america-visa-to-test-smartphone-payment-program/ 19601600/ ). DailyFinance. . Retrieved 2010-11-17. [115] "US Bank to test NFC to Q4 2010" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 06/ 07/ 33866/ us-bank-to-test-nfc-in-q4-2010/ ), NFC World, June 7, 2010, . [116] "Wells Fargo to run NFC field trial" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 09/ 02/ 34392/ wells-fargo-to-run-nfc-field-trial/ ), NFC World, September 2, 2010, . [117] "Blackboard adds NFC and contactless support to campus card system" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 03/ 08/ 32986/ blackboard-adds-nfc-and-contactless-support-to-campus-card-system/ ), NFC World, March 8, 2010, . [118] "Wallet" (http:/ / www. google. com/ wallet/ ), Google, May 27, 2011, . [119] "Google chooses Identive to deliver NFC tags for Places campaign" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 04/ 13/ 36986/ google-chooses-identive-to-deliver-nfc-tags-for-places-campaign/ ), NFC World, April 24, 2011, . [120] "Visa lets New York commuters pay for their fares with mobile phones" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 10/ 01/ 34538/ visa-lets-new-york-commuters-pay-for-their-fares-with-mobile-phones/ ), Near Field Communications World, October 1, 2010, . [121] "m Payments - The future of Micro and Mobile payments" (http:/ / www. mpay. com. au), M Payments, . [122] "m Payments - The future of Micro payments" (http:/ / www. mpay. com. au), M Payments, . [123] "ANZ and Visa begin NFC microSD trial in Australia" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 03/ 21/ 36540/ anz-and-visa-begin-nfc-microsd-trial-in-australia/ ), NFC World, March 20, 2011, . [124] "Commbank Kaching - The future of mobile payments" (http:/ / www. commbank. com. au/ kaching/ ), Commbank Kaching, . [125] "China Unicom and Bank of Communications announce commercial NFC payments launch", NFC World, June 24, 2010. [126] "China Unicom to Launch Commercial NFC Services in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 10/ 22/ 34761/ china-unicom-to-launch-commercial-nfc-services-in-beijing-shanghai-guangzhou-and-chongqing-in-november/ ), NFC World, October 22, 2010, . [127] "NFC bank branch developer A Little World Raises $18M from state bank of India" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 10/ 15/ 34676/ nfc-bank-branch-developer-a-little-world-raises-18m-from-state-bank-of-india/ ), NFC World, October 15, 2010, . 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[132] "Softbank to test NFC in Japan" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 04/ 22/ 33481/ kddi-to-run-multiple-nfc-tests-in-japan/ ), NFC World, December 15, 2010, . [133] "KDDI to run multiple NFC tests in Japan" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 04/ 22/ 33481/ kddi-to-run-multiple-nfc-tests-in-japan/ ), NFC World, April 22, 2010, . [134] "NTT Docomo partners with Koreas KT to switch to NFC at end of 2012" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 09/ 35835/ ntt-docomo-partners-with-koreas-kt-to-switch-to-nfc-at-end-of-2012/ ), NFC World, February 9, 2011, . [135] "Japanese social network Mixi introduces NFC check-ins" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 10/ 35880/ japanese-social-network-mixi-introduces-nfc-check-ins/ ), NFC World, February 11, 2011, . [136] "KT to launch commercial NFC service with new Samsung handset, Android NFC devices to follow" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 10/ 14/ 34666/ kt-commercial-nfc-service-samsung-shw-a170k-android-to-follow), Near Field Communications World, October 14, 2010, . [137] "KDDI, Softbank, SK Telecom begin testing joint NFC services for Japanese and Korean customers" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2011/ 02/ 09/ 35839/ kddi-softbank-sk-telecom-testing-joint-nfc-services-for-japan-korea-consumers/ ), NFC World, February 9, 2011, . [138] "SK Telecom and Hana launch SIM-based mobile contactless payments and promotions service" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 03/ 25/ 33318/ sk-telecom-and-hana-launch-sim-based-mobile-contactless-payments-and-promotions-service/ ), NFC World, March 25, 2010, . 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[143] "Mobile payments: Oi Paggo, Germaltos Upteq N-Flex" (http:/ / www. nearfieldcommunicationsworld. com/ 2010/ 05/ 28/ 33765/ oi-paggo-to-run-nfc-field-trial-in-brazil-using-gemalto-nfc-add-on/ ), NFC World, May 28, 2010, . [144] Padisarco (http:/ / www. padisarco. com/ ), .

21

References
Ortiz, C. Enrique (2006-06). "An Introduction to Near-Field Communication and the Contactless Communication API" (http://java.sun.com/developer/technicalArticles/javame/nfc/). Retrieved 2008-10-24. Kasper, Timo; Dario Carluccio, Christof Paar (May 2007). "An embedded system for practical security analysis of contactless smartcards" (http://www.crypto.rub.de/imperia/md/content/texte/publications/conferences/ embedded_system.pdf) (PDF). Springer LNCS (Workshop in Information Security Theory and Practices 2007, Heraklion, Crete, Greece) 4462: 15060.

Further reading
Near Field Communication (NFC) Technology and Measurements (http://www.rohde-schwarz.com/appnote/ 1MA182.pdf)

External links
NFC technology information, news & resources. (http://www.nfcmagazine.com). About NFC Antennas (http://www.antenna-theory.com/definitions/nfc-antenna.php). ISO/IEC 18092:2004 (http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage. CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=38578&ICS1=35&ICS2=100&ICS3=10), ISO. Touch project (http://www.nearfield.org/), Near Field. Mobile phones hope to be 'smart wallet' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/6168222.stm), "BBC", BBC News (UK), November 21, 2006. "Preparing for the NFC revolution" (http://www.futuretravelexperience.com/2011/07/ preparing-for-the-nfc-revolution/), Future Travel Experience. Near "Future of Near Field" (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070911. wgtnearfielf0911/BNStory/PersonalTech), The Globe and Mail. "Near Field Communications in the security industry Access Control with mobile phones" (http://www. sourcesecurity.com/news/articles/co-3108-ga.5735.html), Source Security. "A day at MIT with Near-Field Communication" (http://vimeo.com/2028724/) (Video), Vimeo.

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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/