03 Propmodel

Propagation Models
Mobile Comms. Systems
General Relationships
GeRe (1/3)
Usually, one takes for the transmitter the ensemble of the power fed to the antenna and its gain, Pt Gt, relative to either the isotropic antenna (EIRP) or the half wavelength dipole (ERPd). In many applications, the antenna gain is referred to the one of the half wavelength dipole G[dBi] = G[dBd] + 2.15
GeRe (2/3)
Path loss is defined as Lp [dB] = Pt [dBm] + Gt [dBi] - Pr [dBm] + Gr [dBi] where Pt: power fed to the transmitting antenna Gt: gain of the transmitting antenna Pr: power available at the receiving antenna Gr: gain of the receiving antenna
GeRe (3/3)
The power available at the receiving antenna, Pr, can be expressed as a function of the electric field average value, Er, or the power density, S,
2 Gr Er2 2 Gr Pr = =S 4 Z 0 4
Er2 S= Z0
or Pr [dBm] = - 77.21 + Er [dBV/m] + Gr [dBi] - 20 log(f[MHz]) where f: frequency : wavelength Z0: free space impedance
Free Space Propagation

FrSP (1/3)
The power available at a receiving antenna in free space propagation is:

PG G Pr = t t r 4d
2
or Pr [dBW] = - 32.44 + Pt [dBW] + Gt [dBi] + Gr [dBi] - 20 log(d[km]) - 20 log(f[MHz]) where d: distance


FrSP (2/3)
The path loss in free space propagation is: L0 [dB] = 32.44 + 20 log(d[km]) + 20 log(f[MHz]) Taking the model of the average power decay with distance, Lp [dB] = Lref + 10 apd log(d[km]) one has apd = 2.

FrSP (3/3)
The electric field average value by the receiving antenna is:

30 Pt Gt Er = d or
Er [dBV/m] = 74.77 + Pt [dBW] + Gt [dBi] - 20 log(d[km])
Plane Earth Propagation

PlEP (1/10)
For short distances, the Earth surface can approximated by a plane. hhE
t
rE r
r r
t
d Edir E
Eref r hR rr R r E hr
hR hr
dE d
t
dR dr d d

PlEP (2/10)
where d = dt + dr = arctan[(ht + hr) / d] dt,r = d ht,r / (ht + hr) ht / dt = hr / dr r = d 2 + (ht hr ) 2

rt + rr = d 2 + (ht + hr ) 2

PlEP (3/10)
The interference between direct and reflected signals depends on: antenna directivity; antenna height; path length; soil characteristics.

PlEP (4/10)
The total signal is the sum of the direct and reflected ones:
Edir e jkr = r 30 Pt Gtdir u dir
30 Pt Gtref u ref
= E
dir
Eref =
jk ( r + r ) t r e
rt + rr
dir
Er = E
+E
ref
r 1+ rt + rr
Gtref jk r e dir Gt

PlEP (5/10)
where dir ,ref Gt is the transmitting antenna gain in the direction of the direct and reflected rays; r is the path length difference; r = (rt + rr) r; is the soil reflection coefficient; k is the propagation constant.

PlEP (6/10)
Assuming that the distance is d >> ht, hr, one can approximate: 1/r 1/(rt + rr) 1/d r 2 ht hr /d -1 Gtdir Gtref
too
large,

PlEP (7/10)
Under these conditions: Er 2 Edir |sin(k ht hr / d)| where Pr Pt Gt Gr (ht hr)2 / d4 or Pr [dBW] = - 120 + Pt [dBW] + Gt [dBi] + Gr [dBi] + 20 log(ht [m]) + 20 log(hr [m]) - 40 log(d[km]) Taking the model of the average power decay with distance, one verifies that apd = 4.

PlEP (8/10)
The electric field depends on distance:
[Source: Parsons, 1992]

PlEP (9/10)
In order to avoid interferences, one can: use directive antennas; obstruct the reflected signal; try to impose the reflection on bad reflective soil; use diversity. It is (very) difficult to do it in mobile communications.

PlEP (10/10)
The Plane Earth model can be used when:

2 k ht d r2 + hr dt2 < dt + d r 2 aef 10
where aef : Earth effective radius (~ 8 500 km). Earth radius should be taken into account for large distances, namely beyond the radio-horizon:
rh d t ,r
2 aef ht ,r
Obstruction by a Knife-Edge
ObKE (1/3)
The Knife-Edge model should be used when the obstacle dimensions are much large than the wavelength. The geometry is
P h h dE d
t
P TxE
Rx PR
d dR r d d
ObKE (2/3)
Path loss can be approximated by

Lke [dB] = 6.4 + 20 log + 2 + 1 , > 0.8 where 2d =h dt d r
Usually, one considers Lke [dB] = 0 for -0.8.

ObKE (3/3)
When the obstacle is round, one can (should) use the cylindrical model. There are several models for the estimation of the extra attenuation by parallel edges, which usually lead to acceptable errors only for large distances between them. Some times, it is necessary to account for diffracted rays as well.
Influence of Vegetation
InVe (1/3)
Vegetation (woods) can be modelled by a dielectric layer, with low losses and not very dense. Vegetation introduces polarisation discrimination. The attenuation coming from vegetation in urban environments is not usually negligible. When the antennas are above the trees level, one can use the model for rays reflected on a surface.
InVe (2/3)
When propagation occurs inside woods, one can use the Weissberger model,
0.284 0.063 f[MHz] d v [m] , 0 d v [m] 14 Lv [ dB] = 0.284 0.588 0.187 f[MHz] d v [m] , 14 d v [m] 400
for f > 200 MHz, where dv: effective distance crossed by waves inside vegetation.
InVe (3/3)
ITU-R proposes another model for the extra attenuation for propagation inside woods.
Vertical Pol. Horizontal Pol.
[Source: ITU-R, Vol. V, Rep. 236-6]
Coverage Problems
CoPr (1/3)
Cell planning requires the estimation of the signal coming from the base stations, for both coverage and interference purposes. It is essential to have a good estimation of the cells borders, as well as of the interference regions. In private mobile radio, where several Mobile Terminals (MTs) are connect to a central dispatch, a unique Base Station (BS) in the centre of the service area may provide the required coverage.
Coverage Problems
CoPr (2/3)
In cellular mobile communication systems, several BSs are used, yielding problems in spectrum management and cell dimensioning. Signal estimation involves the calculation of an average value and of the variation around it, coverage and interference being established for given percentages of : locations; call drops.
Coverage Problems
CoPr (3/3)
The main aspects to be considered in signal estimation are: influence of terrain irregularities and obstacles; characterisation of urban areas; penetration into buildings, and propagation inside them.
Models for Signal Estimation

MoSE (1/6)
Most models supply the median or the average values of the signal, hence, one needs to know the signal statistics in order to determine its variation. The problem of signal estimation cannot be taken exclusively from a deterministic approach. A correct signal estimation, and the development of related models, implies knowledge on all factors that influence propagation in mobile communications.

MoSE (2/6)
The signal undergoes two types of fading: slow (long term) and fast (short term).
[Source: Yacoub, 1993]

MoSE (3/6)
Fading characteristics are: slow fading depends essentially on distance, with a log-normal distribution; fast fading is associated to the terminal movement, with a Rice distribution. Fading margins, which need to be taken into account, characterise signal variation around the average value, depending on: environment characteristics; target Quality of Service (QoS).

MoSE (4/6)
Models can be divided into two categories: empirical; theoretical. Empirical models: are based on measurements, leading to best fit equations; have the advantage of accounting for all factors influencing propagation; need to be validated for environments different from those in which they were established.

MoSE (5/6)
Theoretical models: are an approximation to reality; do not account for all factors; allow for an easy change in parameters; show a stronger dependence on geographical data base resolution. Currently, models contemplate both the theoretical and the empirical approaches. There is no such thing as a model that can be applied in all scenarios and environments.

MoSE (6/6)
There are two basic models to be used outdoors: COST 231 Okumura Hata large distances (> 5 km); urban, suburban, and rural environments. COST 231 Walfish Ikegami small distances (< 5 km); urban and suburban environments. For very short distances (< 500 m), one should use other types of models (e.g., ray tracing).
Environment Classification
EnCl (1/9)
Model usage requires an environment classification. Usually, one distinguishes three categories: rural; suburban; urban. There are several types of classifications, often associated to different propagation models.
EnCl (2/9)
Environment classification, takes into account, among others, the following parameters: terrain undulation; vegetation density; building density and height; open areas density; water areas density.
EnCl (3/9)
United Kingdom
lakes, rivers, see open rural areas rural areas with trees forests and woods mountainous regions low density suburban areas high density suburban areas urban areas, with buildings up to 4 floors, and some open spaces urban areas, with buildings with more than 4 floors high density urban areas, with sky scrapers
Germany
water open area forests open area
Japan
mixed see/land open area quasi open area undulated suburban
built area urban
EnCl (4/9)
A parameter proposed to quantify building density is the Terrain Occupation Coefficient [Remy et al., 1988]: building total surface area Cto = building terrain occupation area Typically: urban --- Cto > 1; suburban --- Cto 0.4; rural --- Cto < 0.1.
EnCl (5/9)
Parameters associated to building density are proposed by [Ibrahim and Parsons, 1983]: terrain occupation - L: percentage of built square areas (500 m side); building structure - U: percentage of built areas with buildings higher than 4 floors.
EnCl (6/9)
Three basic classes are considered by [Hafaru, 1989]: 1 rural lA flat 1B undulated 1C mountainous 2 suburban 2A residential, with spaces 2B residential, without spaces 2C residential, very dense 3 urban 3A commercial 3B services 3C industrial
EnCl (7/9)
The classification is based on: building areas distribution function (average and standard deviation) DBA; built areas index (percentage) IBA; building heights distribution function (average and standard deviation) DBH; building location distribution function DBL; vegetation areas index (percentage) IV; terrain undulation index (percentage) IOT (interdecil terrain undulation 10 km from the MT).
EnCl (8/9)
IBA DBA [m2] DBH [floor] IV [%] [%] A 12-20 95- 55-70 2 1 2.5 115 2 B 20-30 100- 70-90 2-3 1 <5 120 C 12 500 90 1 4 2 A 45 200- 180 1 0 4 250 3 B 30-40 150- 160 3 1 0 200 C 35-45 250 200 2-3 1 1
EnCl (9/9)
In urban and suburban environments, cells are usually classified according to their radius, R, and to the relative position of the BS antennas (to neighbouring buildings), h. Cell Macro large small Micro
R [km] >3 13 0.1 1 < 0.1
h >0 >0 0 << 0
Pico
Propagation in Urban Environments

PrUE (1/2)
Buildings cause numerous reflected rays (leading to fading) and shadow areas (with a large attenuation). Attenuation and reflection depend on building materials. Streets lead to guided waves phenomena, with different characteristics in across and along streets. Building proximity, between them and to the MT, may cause large errors in model application.
Propagation in Urban Environments

PrUE (2/2)
Comparison of additional attenuation, relative to open area, at 900 MHz, [COST 207, 1989]: Country Finland Denmark Germany Italy
Attenuation [dB] urban 22.7 23.0 23.9 24.9 29.0 suburban 19.7 18.0 23.9 17.6 19.0
Japan
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (1/23)
The empirical model, these days used as a standard, was proposed by [Okumura et al., 1968], based on measurements in [150, 2000] MHz. Okumura et al. presented the results in a graphical form, [Hata, 1980] having established best fit equations for some curves, although in a more restrictive range. The model standard value is an urban environment, on flat terrain, over which correction factors are considered.
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (2/23)
Environments are classified into 3 groups: open area: no obstacles in a 300 to 400 m region in front of the MT; suburban area: some obstacles, not very dense, in the region in front of the MT; urban area: region of high building density, with buildings higher than 2 floors.
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (3/23)
The model gives the median value for path loss, depending on: frequency, f; distance between BS and MT, d; height of MT antenna, hm;
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (4/23)
effective height of BS antenna, hbe hhb b

hbs hbs
hbe hbe
hga hga
3 km 0
15 km
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (5/23)
height of terrain undulation, hb

(b) BS 10 % h hb (m) MT 90 % d 10 km d = = 10 km
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (6/23)
height and distances to an isolated obstacle, h, d1, d2

(b) BS
hh hga hga d1
d1 (m) MT
dd2 2
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (7/23)
average slope of the terrain, i

(m) MT i i
(b) BS
h h2 2
di
h11 h
di
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (8/23)
mixed path parameter, = ds/d

(b) BS
MT (m) water (gua) ds

ds d
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (9/23)
The path loss median value is given by Lp [dB] = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f[MHz]) - 13.82 log(hbe [m]) + [44.90 - 6.55 log(hbe [m])] log(d[km]) - Hmu [dB](hm, f) - correction factors
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (10/23)
where
[1.10 log( f[ MHz ] ) 0.70]hm[ m ] - [1.56 log( f[ MHz ] ) 0.80] small city 2 8.29 log ( 1.54 hm[ m ] ) 1.10, H mu [dB] = f 200 MHz 3.20 log 2 (11.75 h m [ m ] ) 4.97, f 400 MHz large city
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (11/23)
Although the original model is valid for f [150, 2 000] MHz d [1, 100] km hbe [30, 1 000] m hm [1, 10] m Hatas formulation is restricted to f [150, 1 500] MHz d [1, 20] km hbe [30, 200] m hm [1, 10] m
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (12/23)
Correction factors are: along and across streets, Kal, Kac
[Source: Okumura et al., 1968]
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (13/23)
average slope, Ksp
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (14/23)
terrain undulation, Kth
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (15/23)
position in terrain undulation, Khp
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (16/23)
mixed paths, Kmp
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (17/23)
isolated hill, Kih
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (18/23)
open areas, Koa, or quasi open areas, Kqo
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (19/23)
suburban areas, Ksu
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (20/23)
Kac(d )[dB] = 2.1 log(d[km]) 6.3

2.7 log(d[ km ] ) + 8.6 , d 40 km K al (d )[dB] = 4.0 log(d[ km ] ) + 10.7 , d > 40 km
0.0025 [2 ] + 0.204 [ mrad ] , mrad (d < 10 km) 0.648 1.09 , [ mrad ] K sp ( )[dB] = (d > 30 km) 0.0012 2 [ mrad ] + 0.840 [ mrad ] , (d > 60 km)
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (21/23)
Kth(h)[dB] = -3 log2(h[m]) - 0.5 log(h[m]) + 4.5 Khp(h)[dB] = -2 log2(h[m]) +16 log(h[m]) -12 12.4 2 + 27.2 , d > 60 km A 2 8.0 + 19.0 , d < 30 km K mp ( )[dB] = 11.9 2 + 4.7 , d > 60 km B ( < 0.8) 7.8 2 + 5.6 , d < 30 km Ksu(f)[dB] = 2.00 log2(f[MHz]/28) + 5.40 Koa(f)[dB] = 4.78 log2(f[MHz]) - 18.33 log(f[MHz]) + 40.9 Kqo(f)[dB] = Koa(f)[dB] - 5
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (22/23)
Suzuki distribution is used for fading.
Okumura-Hata Model
OkHM (23/23)
Standard deviation for urban, u, and suburban, s, environments is approximated by
u(f)[dB] = 0.70 log2(f[MHz]) 2.50 log(f[MHz])

+11.10
s(f)[dB] = 0.98 log2(f[MHz]) 3.40 log(f[MHz])

+11.88
Extensions to Okumura-Hata Model

EOHM (1/3)
For small distances, the BS effective height should be taken as [ITU-R, Vol. V, Rep. 567-3]
hb + hob hom , hob > hom hbe = , hob hom hb
hbe hb
BS (b) MT (m)
hom hom
hob hob

EOHM (2/3)
Hatas formulation was extended by [COST 231, 1999] for f [1.5, 2.0] GHz: Lp [dB] = 46.30 + 33.90 log(f[MHz]) - 13.82 log(hbe [m]) + [44.90 - 6.55 log (hbe [m])] log(d[km]) - Hmu [dB](hm, f) + Cm [dB] - correction factors where
0 , small cities Cm [dB] = 3 , urban centres

EOHM (3/3)
[COST 207, 1989] proposes correction factors for building density Kp [dB] = 25.66 - 17.25 log(pbu [% ]) Kr [dB] = -1.22 - 5.98 log (rhw) where pbu: percentage of built area rhw : ratio between average building height and street width
Ikegami Model
IkMo (1/8)
A theoretical model for signal estimation in urban environments was proposed by [Ikegami et al., 1984]. The electric field at the MT is obtained via the sum of rays reflected and diffracted by buildings. jjn E e Enne n
n n
x x
Ikegami Model
IkMo (2/8)
E = En e j n e jk n r u n
n =1
power density being approximated by 1 N 2 S ( x) = En Z 0 n=1

N 2 N + En Em Z 0 n=1 m=1, m n
cos[k (cos( n ) cos( m ) )x ( n m )]
Ikegami Model
IkMo (3/8)
The average power density, along the street, in a path of length ls sufficiently large, is given by 1 ls 1 N 2 S = S ( x) d ( x) En ls 0 Z 0 n=1 resulting for the electric field
E
2 En n =1
Ikegami Model
IkMo (4/8)
The total electric field is approximated by the sum of reflected and diffracted rays

E E
Edd E
r r
B HB HB
Er E
Ed
hm hm
d m dm w w
s
Ikegami Model
IkMo (5/8)
Diffracted and reflected fields are estimated via the knife-edge model. B
HB B dm dm ws w 2w d 2ws -- dm m
m hm
db db
Ikegami Model
IkMo (6/8)
Ed 0.2239 E0/d Er 0.2239 E0 ||/r where E0: free space electric field magnitude by the building edge : reflection coefficient from the building
2 sin( ) d = ( H B hm ) dm 2 sin( ) r = ( H B hm ) (2ws d m )
Ikegami Model
IkMo (7/8)
assuming that B << 1 rad db>>ws db >> HB d, r > 1 In any point in the street, the average magnitude of the electric field is given by
E = 0.1583 E0
( H B hm ) sin( ) d m + (2 ws d m ) | |2
Ikegami Model
IkMo (8/8)
At the street centre, the average magnitude of the electric field is given by E[dBV/m] = E0 [dBV/m] + 5.75 + 10 log(1 + 3 ||2) - 10 log(f[MHz]) + 10 log(ws [m]) - 20 log(HB [m] - hm [m]) - 10 log[sin()] The model gives a good estimate for the signal inside the street, but considers free space propagation from the BS to the street.
Walfisch-Bertoni Model
WaBM (1/6)
A theoretical model for propagation in urban environments, accounting for building diffraction, has been proposed by [Walfisch and Bertoni, 1988], being improved by [Maciel et al., 1993].
WaBM (2/6)
The model assumes that the urban structure is regular, with equal height buildings, propagation being done perpendicular to the street axis. B hb b d d
hm m dm d m
w
HB HB
wB
WaBM (3/6)
The diffraction by a set of knife-edges penetrating Fresnels first ellipsoid is accounted for.
(Nw) sec() (NwB)1/2 sec(B)
1/2
NwBNw tg() tan(B)
N
...
2 1
2 N0 int[/(wBB)])] int [/(w 2 N0
WaBM (4/6)
The extra attenuation due to propagation over roof tops is approximated by Lrt [dB] = - 20 log(2.35 g0.9) where g = B wB for 0.01 < g < 0.4 Note that
B (hb - HB)/d
WaBM (5/6)
The extra attenuation due to diffraction from the roof to the MT is approximated by
1 1 1 Lrm [dB] = 20 log k 2 where
= arctan[(HB - hm)/dm]
2 = ( H B hm ) 2 + d m
HB HB
hm hm dm m
WaBM (6/6)
The total path loss is given by Lp [dB] = L0 [dB] + Lrt [dB] + Lrm [dB] The model leads to results with acceptable errors, especially if the urban structure is reasonable uniform near the MT in a length of N0wB.
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegami Model
CWIM (1/6)
[COST 231, 1999] developed a model that takes both Ikegami and Walfisch-Bertoni into consideration, assessed by measurements in European cities. The model takes the same assumptions of the previous models, concerning the urban structure. B hb b
hm hm
HB HB
d d
ws wB
ws wB
CWIM (2/6)
For LoS propagation in a street ( = 0), one has Lp [dB] = 42.6 + 26 log(d[km]) + 20 log(f[MHz]) , d > 0.02 km In all other cases, one has
L0 [dB] + Lrt [dB] + Lrm [dB] , Lrt + Lrm > 0 L p [dB] = , Lrt + Lrm 0 L0 [dB] where
Lrm [dB] = -16.9 - 10 log(ws [m]) + 10 log(f[MHz]) + 20 log(HB [m] - hm [m]) + Lori [dB]
CWIM (3/6)
with
Lori [dB]
and Lrt [dB] = Lbsh [dB] + ka + kd log(d[km]) + kf log (f[MHz]) - 9 log(wB [m]) with , hb > H B 18 kd = hb H B , hb H B 18 15 H B
10.0 + 0.354[ o ] , 0o < 35o = 2.5 + 0.075 ([ o ] 35) , 35o < 55o ([o] 55) , 55o 90o 4.0 0.114
CWIM (4/6)
18 log(hb [m] H B [m] + 1) , hb > H B Lbsh [dB] = 0 , hb H B , hb > H B 54 , d 0.5 km ka = 54 0.8(hb [m] H B [m] ) hb H B 54 1.6(h b [m] H B [m] ) d[km] , d < 0.5 km
f[MHz] 4 + 0.7 925 1 , urb. and suburb. kf = 4 + 1.5 f[MHz] 1 , dense urban 925
CWIM (5/6)
The model is valid for f [800, 2 000] MHz d [0.02, 5] km hb [4, 50] m hm [1, 3] m The standard deviation takes values in [4, 7] dB. The error increases when hb decreases relative to HB.
CWIM (6/6)
In the absence of specific values, the following are recommended: wB [20, 50] m ws = wB /2 = 90o HB [m] = 3 (# floors) + Hroof
3 , pitched H roof [m] = 0 , flat

Model Assessment
MoAs (1/2)
Measuring the signal in parts of the service area is essential for model assessment. Measurement of signal magnitude for the evaluation of the average value requires the filtering of fast fading: a window 20 to 40 wavelengths long is taken; the average is calculated in the window; the window is shifted along the whole measurement length.
Model Assessment
MoAs (2/2)
After filtering the fast fading, the resulting power Pfilt is compared with the one from the model, Pmod, the average and the standard deviation of the difference between the two being calculated
= n=1
Pn N
n =1
=
( Pn )
N
with
P = |Pfilt - Pmod|
Signal Variation
SiVa (1/3)
The estimation of signal variation, i.e., the standard deviation, is important for the assessment of the quality of signal estimation. Estimations for the standard deviation are given by [ITU-R, Vol. V, Rep. 567-3] Band VHF 50
UHF h[m] 100 15 300 18
L [dB]
10
Signal Variation
SiVa (2/3)
[Longley, 1976] proposes a standard deviation depending on h and f

6 + 0.55 h / 0.004h / , h / < 4700 L[dB] = , h / > 4700 24.9
Signal Variation
SiVa (3/3)
Terrain type Water, or almost flat plains Plains Undulated plains Undulated terrain Hills High Hills Mountains Rugged mountains
h[m] 05 5 - 20 20 40 40 80 80 150 150 300 300 700 > 700
Indoor Propagation
InPr (1/4)
The estimation of penetration into buildings, and of indoor propagation, gained an increased importance due to the generalised use of mobile phones. The previous models supply the value for outdoors, hence, there is the need to add an attenuation coming from penetration into indoors. Lp total [dB] = Lp outd [dB] + Lp ind [dB]
Indoor Propagation
InPr (2/4)
There are two groups of models: semi-deterministic, where building material characteristics, number of crossed walls, and other parameters, are accounted for; statistic, where the additional attenuation is taken as a function of the percentage of indoor locations to be covered, accounting for the general characteristics of the building. In UHF, penetration attenuation ranges in [1, 20] dB.
Indoor Propagation
InPr (3/4)
A statistic model for the penetration attenuation was developed, based on measurements in Lisbon. BS Lp outd Lp ind
Outdoor models
Penetration models
Indoor Propagation
InPr (4/4)
The model gives the penetration attenuation, Lp ind, for a given overall indoor coverage probability. The model follows the Log-Normal Distribution: Band [MHz] Average [dB] Standard deviation [dB] 900 3.7 9.9 1 800 10.2 13.8
Coverage Estimation
CoEs (1/5)
The estimation of the percentage of BS coverage area is essential for the QoS evaluation. By neglecting fast fading, and taking slow fading into account, the signal is described by the LogNormal Distribution: average power at the receiver, Pr standard deviation in the environment, e
Coverage Estimation
CoEs (2/5)
The percentage of locations at a given distance R from the BS with power higher than Pr min is
PCIRC Pr min , R = Prob(Pr R
P [dB] 1 + erf 2 e[dB] > Pr min ) = 2
with P = Pr R Pr min [dB] where Pr R : average power at the receiver at distance R.

Coverage Estimation
CoEs (3/5)
The percentage of covered area can be estimated from PCIRC(Pr min, R) 1 PAREA = PCIRC dS area Sarea S
area
It is assumed that power follows

Pr [ dBm ] (d ) = Pr R [ dBm ] 10 a pd log(d / R )
Coverage Estimation
CoEs (4/5)
Taking a circle of radius R, the percentage of covered area is

1 + erf (a ) + e
( 2 ab + 1) / b
2
PAREA =
ab + 1 1 erf b
where
P[dB] a= 2 [dB]
10 a pd log(e) b= 2 [dB]
Coverage Estimation
CoEs (5/5)
The fading margin associated to the percentage of covered locations at a distance R from the BS can be calculated from p% p% M F circ[ dB] = L p [ dB] L p [ dB] where p M F % [ dB] = u ( p %) [ dB] circ in which u(p%) is obtained from the respective percentage value for the Normal Distribution. The fading margin for the area can be obtained from PAREA, taking P as
p MF% area
Table of Contents
ToC (1/2)
GeRe - General Relationships FrSP - Free Space Propagation PlEP - Plane Earth Propagation ObKE - Obstruction by a Knife-Edge InVe - Influence of Vegetation CoPr - Coverage Problems MoSE - Models for Signal Estimation EnCl - Environment Classification PrUE - Propagation in Urban Environments OkHM - Okumura-Hata Model
Table of Contents
ToC (2/2)

EOHM - Extensions to Okumura-Hata Model IkMo - Ikegami Model WaBM - Walfisch-Bertoni Model CWIM - COST231-Walfisch-Ikegami Model MoAs - Model Assessment SiVa - Signal Variation InPr - Indoor Propagation CoEs - Coverage Estimation

03 Propmodel

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03 Propmodel

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Propagation Models

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Free Space Propagation

The power available at a receiving antenna in free space propagation is:

or Pr [dBW] = - 32.44 + Pt [dBW] + Gt [dBi] + Gr [dBi] - 20 log(d[km]) - 20 log(f[MHz]) where d: distance

Free Space Propagation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Free Space Propagation

The electric field average value by the receiving antenna is:

Er [dBV/m] = 74.77 + Pt [dBW] + Gt [dBi] - 20 log(d[km])

Mobile Comms. Systems

Plane Earth Propagation

Plane Earth Propagation

where d = dt + dr = arctan[(ht + hr) / d] dt,r = d ht,r / (ht + hr) ht / dt = hr / dr r = d 2 + (ht hr ) 2

Plane Earth Propagation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Plane Earth Propagation

Plane Earth Propagation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Plane Earth Propagation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Plane Earth Propagation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Plane Earth Propagation

The electric field depends on distance:

Mobile Comms. Systems

[Source: Parsons, 1992]

Plane Earth Propagation

Plane Earth Propagation

The Plane Earth model can be used when:

Mobile Comms. Systems

Path loss can be approximated by

Usually, one considers Lke [dB] = 0 for -0.8.

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Vertical Pol. Horizontal Pol.

Mobile Comms. Systems

[Source: ITU-R, Vol. V, Rep. 236-6]

Mobile Comms. Systems

Models for Signal Estimation

Models for Signal Estimation

Mobile Comms. Systems

[Source: Yacoub, 1993]

Models for Signal Estimation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Models for Signal Estimation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Models for Signal Estimation

Mobile Comms. Systems

Models for Signal Estimation

Mobile Comms. Systems

built area urban

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

Mobile Comms. Systems

R [km] >3 13 0.1 1 < 0.1

h >0 >0 0 << 0