Meena Ramani

4/2/2007
EEL 6586
Automatic Speech Processing
Anatomy
e.g. Cochlea
Psychoacoustics
e.g. Masking
Engineering Applications
e.g. Hearing aids and Cochlear implants
Best example of speech recognition
Mimic human speech processing
Speech coding
e.g. mp3
Hearing aids/ Cochlear implants
What is the smallest bone in the body?
Middle ear ossicle: Stapes (~2.5mm)
How sensitive is the eardrum?
For minimum audible sounds, the eardrum moves less than the
diameter of a hydrogen atom
When does the Cochlea reach full adult size?
20-22 weeks old fetus
How is the human body kept in balance?
Semi-circular canals of the ear act as gyroscopes
What is the number one disability in the world?
Hearing loss
76.3% of people over the age of 19 start to lose their hearing
Audible frequency range: 20Hz-20kHz
Intensity dynamic range: 0-130 dB
JND frequency: 5 cents *
JND intensity: ~1dB
Size of cochlea: D=2mm L
uc
=27mm
~Tip of your tiny finger
*
one octave=12 equally tempered semi tones
one equally tempered semi tone=100 cents
<http://www.dizziness-and-balance.com/images/Hearing-Animation.gif>
A
N
A
T
O
M
Y
Function:
Focuses sound pressure waves into the ear canal
Sound localization
Human Pinna structure:
Symmetrical, curved and pointed forward
More sensitive to sounds in front
Pinna size: Inverse square law
Others:
Dogs/ Cats: Movable Pinna
Elephants: Hear LF sound from up to 5 miles away
Barn Owl: Left ear opening is higher than the right
Improvement in localization
Pinna
Auditory Canal
Interaural differences
1. Horizontal localization
2. Vertical localization
Pinna Pinna sound localization sound localization
Is the sound on your right or left side?
Signal needs to travel further to the more distant ear
Time difference
More distant ear is partially occluded by the head
Intensity difference
Interaural time difference (ITD)
Interaural intensity difference (IID)
Illustration of Illustration of interaural interaural differences differences
Left
ear
Right
ear
sound
onset
left right
time
Left Left
ear ear
Right Right
ear ear
sound sound
onset onset
time time
arrival time
difference
Illustration of interaural differences Illustration of interaural differences
Left
ear
Right
ear
sound
onset
time
ongoing time
difference
Illustration of Illustration of interaural interaural differences differences
Left
ear
Right
ear
sound
onset
time
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y


d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
Illustration of Illustration of interaural interaural differences differences
Interaural time differences (ITDs)
Threshold ITD ~ 10-20 ms (~ 0.7 cm)
Interaural intensity differences (IIDs)
Threshold IID ~ 1 dB
Just noticeable thresholds Just noticeable thresholds
Interaural time differences (ITDs)
Used for low frequency sound localization
Valid up to around 1000 Hz
Sensitivity declines rapidly above 1000 Hz
Smallest phase difference corresponds to true ITD
Interaural intensity differences (IIDs)
Used for high frequency sound localization
Less than 500 Hz, IIDs are negligible (due to diffraction)
Attenuation varies with frequency
IIDs can reach up to 20 dB at high frequencies
DD
UU
PP
LL
EE
XX
TT
HH
EE
OO
RR
YY
Horizontal localization Horizontal localization
Pinna directional filtering
Pinna amplifies sound above and below differently
Selective spectral amplification
Is sound above or below?
1. Horizontal localization
2. Vertical localization
Pinna Pinna sound localization sound localization
Function:
Boosts energy between 2-5Khz by 15dB
2-5kHz region is important for understanding speech
Structure:
Auditory canal length: 2.7cm
Closed tube resonance: wave resonator
Broad peak since the closed end is a pliant ear drum
Resonance frequency: ~3Khz
Pinna
Auditory Canal
A
N
A
T
O
M
Y
Impedance matching
Acoustic impedance of the fluid is 4000 x that of air
Need amplification
Amplification
By lever action ~ 3x
Area amplification [55mm
2
3.2mm
2
] 15x
Stapedius reflex
Protection against low frequency loud sounds
Tenses musclesstiffens vibration of Ossicles
Reduces sound transmitted (20dB)
Eardrum
Ossicles
Oval window
Translation of sound wave to vibrations in cochlea
Eardrum OssiclesOval Window
Ossicles: Malleus, Incus, Stapes
A
N
A
T
O
M
Y
Semicircular Canals
Cochlea
Function:
Keeps body in balance
Canals: Accelerometers in 3 perpendicular planes
Structure:
3 perpendicular fluid-filled canals
Hair cells in canal detect fluid movements
Connected to the auditory nerve
Function:
Cochlea is the body's microphone
Converts mechanical movement to electrical action potentials
Structure:
Cochlea is a snail-shell like structure 2.5 turns
(1) Organ of Corti (fluid-filled)
(2) Scala tympani (fluid-filled)
(3) Scala vestibulli (fluid-filled)
(4) Spiral ganglion
(5) Auditory nerve fibers
Semicircular Canals
Cochlea
Inner ear Inner ear
[16,000 -20,000] Inner hair cells and Outer hair cells along BM
1 row of IHC, 3 rows of OHCs
IHC: Transmit signals to the brain via auditory nerves (Afferent)
OHC: Transmit feedback signals from the brain via auditory nerves (Efferent)
Each hair cell has 100s of tiny stereocilia
Vibrations of the oval window causes the cochlear fluid to vibrate
BM vibration produces a traveling wave
OHCs amplify and sharpen the vibration of the BM
Bending of the IHC cilia (in one direction-HWR) produces action potentials
Action potentials travel via the auditory nerve to the brain
Tonotopic mapping along the BM and for the AN fibers
Each position along the BM has a characteristic frequency for
maximum vibration
Frequency of vibration depends on the place along the BM
At the base, the BM is stiff and thin (more responsive to high Hz)
At the apex, the BM is wide and floppy (more responsive to low Hz)
32-35 mm long
Base Apex
Human ear resolves 1500 pitches
One pitch every .002cm!
Possible by OHC feedback
results in sharper response peaks along BM
The ear produces some sounds!
By-product of electro-motile vibrations of the OHCs
Uses:
To test hearing for infants
To check if patient is feigning a loss
Each hair cell has about 10 AN fibers
AN fibers carry impulses from cochlea and semicircular canals
AN makes connections with both auditory areas of the brain
Tonotopic mapping
Neurons encode
Steady state sounds (phase, frequency, intensity)
Onsets
Auditory Area of Brain
Why do your ears pop while on an airplane?
Does the pinna continue to grow?
Why do you hear waves when you couple a sea-shell to
your ear?
How do you perceive pitch while on a telephone?
Meena Ramani
4/4/2007
EEL 6586
Automatic Speech Processing
Anatomy
e.g. Cochlea
Psychoacoustics
e.g. Masking
Engineering Applications
e.g. Hearing aids and Cochlear implants
Outer ear: Pinna and Auditory canal
Horizontal localization: IID, ITD
Vertical localization: Pinna spectral amplification
Auditory canal resonance ~3 kHz
Middle ear: Tympanic membrane, Ossicles, Oval window
Translates sound pressure to cochlea fluid vibration
Ossicles- Lever (15x) and Area amplification (3x)
Stapedius reflex
Inner ear: Cochlea, Semicircular canals
Semi-circular canals keep the body in balance
Cochlear hair cells convert BM vibration to electrical impulses
Impulses are transmitted via auditory nerve to the brain
The study of how sounds entering the ear are processed by
the ear and the brain in order to give the listener useful
information
Measurement of the sensitivity of listeners to changes in the
auditory spectrum
<Hearing thresholds, JND>
The study of the relationship between acoustics and perception
<Pitch, Loudness, Timbre, Masking>
The study of the structures and processes which convert sounds
into sensations and then into our perceptions
<Auditory nerve coding>
Auditory nerve coding
Hearing thresholds
Psychoacoustics basic phenomena
Each hair cell has about 10 auditory nerve fibers
Bending of the IHC cilia produces action potentials
Action potentials travel via the auditory nerve to the brain
Tonotopic mapping for AN response
Auditory Area of Brain
Neurons encode
Steady state sounds (phase, frequency, intensity)
Onsets
At stimulus onset, AN firing rate increases rapidly
For constant stimulus, the rate decreases exponentially
Spontaneous rate: AN firing rate in the absence of stimulus
Neuron is more responsive to changes than to steady inputs
To determine the tonotopic map of AN:
Apply 50ms tone bursts every 100ms
Increase SPL till spike rate increases by 1
Repeat for all frequencies
AN characteristic frequency
~=BM resonance frequency
Tuning curves are BPFs with almost
constant Q (=f
0
/BW)
Minimum intensity of sound needed at a particular frequency to
just stimulate an AN above spontaneous activity
HF slopes are very steep (c. 300 dB/oct)
LF slopes generally have a steep tip followed by a flatter base
Damage to the cochlea abolishes the tip
Play a tone above a particular (CF) ANs threshold, it will fire
If a second tone is played, at a frequency and level in the shaded
area, then the firing rate of the first neuron will be reduced
Auditory system is non-linear
Contention for same neurons to encode both frequencies
ANs tend to fire at a particular phase of LF stimulus
Inter Spike Intervals (ISI) occur at integer multiples of the tone period
>3kHz phase locking gets weaker because of neuron refractory period
As the amplitude of a tone increases, the firing rate of a AN neuron
at that CF increases up to saturation
High spontaneous rate neurons code low level intensity changes
Low spontaneous rate neurons code high level intensity changes
High spontaneous rate neurons are more in number
Coding of frequency
Phase-locking for low frequencies
Place (tonotopic) theory
Coding of phase
Phase-locking
binaural localization (ITD)
Coding of intensity
Rate of firing above threshold
Spread of firing
Matlab code available:
http://www.ece.mcmaster.ca/~ibruce/
Input: wav file
Output: PSTH [post stimulus time histogram]
Auditory Auditory--periphery model periphery model
(Zhang et al. ~2001)
Auditory nerve coding
Hearing thresholds
Psychoacoustics basic phenomena
Threshold of hearing at 1,000 Hz is 0 dB
Loudness is not simply sound intensity!
Factor of ten increase in intensity for the sound to be twice as loud
Unit of loudness: Phon [Reference: SPL at 1,000 Hz]
The Bass loss problem: discrimination against LF
Presbycusis: hearing loss due of aging
Hearing sensitivity decreases especially at HFs
Threshold of pain remains the same
Reduced dynamic range
a) Normal hearing b) Severe hearing loss
c) Fused cilia of IHC-Noise induced loss
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)
OSHA Noise exposure computation standard- 1910.95
Noise dosimeters:
Microphone and noise processor
Memory for storing results and time history
Auditory nerve coding
Hearing thresholds
Psychoacoustics basic phenomena
Critical bands and loudness
Monoaural beats
Masking effect
Frequency masking, temporal masking
Psychoacoustic experiments
Equally loud, close in frequency (A,B)
Same IHCs
Slightly louder
Equally loud, separated in freq. (C,D)
Different IHCs
Twice as loud
Critical bands of frequency
(Proposed by Fletcher)
Center Freq
(Hz)
Critical BW
(Hz)
100 90
200 90
500 110
1000 150
2000 280
5000 700
10000 1200
How to measure?
Signal threshold in noise vs. BW
CB ~= 1.5mm spacing on BM
24 such band pass filters
BW of the filters increases with f
c
Weber: Logarithmic relationship
Psychoacoustical scale: bark scale
Loudness increases when bandwidth exceeds a critical band
Critical bands and loudness
Monoaural beats
Masking effect
Frequency masking, temporal masking
If two tones are presented monaurally with a small
frequency difference, a beating pattern can be heard
500 & 502 Hz 500 & 520 Hz
Interaction of the two tones in the same auditory filter
Beating arises from neural interaction
Only perceived if the tones are sufficiently close in frequency
Meena Ramani
4/6/2007
EEL 6586
Automatic Speech Processing
Critical bands and loudness
Monoaural beats
Masking effect
Frequency masking, temporal masking
A loud sound makes a weaker sound imperceptible
Categories and aspects of masking
Frequency masking
Temporal masking
Frequency selectivity of the auditory system
Psychophysical tuning curves
Masking occurs because two frequencies lie within a critical
band and the higher amplitude one masks the lower amplitude
signal
Types of maskers:
Broad band noise, narrowband noise, pure & complex tones
Lowfrequency broad band sounds mask the most
Masking threshold:
Amt of dB for test tone to be just audible in noise
MASKING
White noise
Masked thresholds are a function of frequency
TOQs frequency dependence almost completely disappears
Low and very high frequency almost same as TOQ
Above 500Hz, thresholds increase with increase in frequency by
10dB/decade
MASKING
Narrow band <=Critical BW
Noise (constant Amplitude, Different Frequency)
0.25,1,4KHz ; BW: 100, 160, 700Hz; 60dB
Freq. dependence of threshold masked by 250Hz seems to be broader
Maximum value of masked threshold is lower for higher frequencies.
Steep increase but flatter decrease
MASKING
Noise (Varying Amplitude, Fixed Frequency)
1KHz noise; 20-100dB
Slope of rise seems independent of amplitude
But slope of fall is dependent on amplitude
Non-Linear frequency dependence
Strange effect at high masker amplitudes:
At high amplitudes ear begins to listen to anything audible!!
Begin to hear difference noise (noise and testing tone)
MASKING
Previously assume long lasting test and masking sounds
Speech has a strong temporal structure
Vowels= Loudest parts; Consonants=faint parts
Consonants are masked by preceding loud vowel
MASKING
Post-stimulus/Forward/Post-masking
1
st
Masker 2
nd
test tone
Pre-Stimulus/Backward/Pre-masking
1
st
test tone 2
nd
Masker
Simultaneous Masking
Test tone and Masker together
MASKING
Simultaneous masking
Duration >200ms, constant test tone threshold
Assume hearing system integrates over a period of 200ms
Postmasking
Decay in effect of masker for 100ms
More dominant effect
Premasking
Takes place 20ms before masker is on!!
Each sensation is not instantaneous, requires build-up time
Quick build up for loud maskers; Slower build up for softer maskers
Less dominant effect
MASKING
Procedure
Masker: A narrowband noise of variable center freq is the masker
Target: A fixed freq and fixed level pure tone
Level of masker that just masks the tone for different masker freqs.
Inference:
Masking curves tell much about auditory selectivity
Psychophysical tuning curves match with physiological curves
MASKING
Anatomy
e.g. Cochlea
Psychoacoustics
e.g. Masking
Engineering Applications
e.g. Hearing aids and Cochlear implants
Normal Hearing
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Mild to Severe Loss
[10 20 30 60 80 90] dB HL
Time (s)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
H
z
)
Cell phone speech for normal hearing
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
Time (s)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
H
z
)
Cell phone speech for SNHL
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
What do the hearing What do the hearing
impaired hear? impaired hear?
One in every ten (28 million) Americans has hearing loss
95% of those with hearing loss can have their hearing loss
treated with hearing aids
Only 6 million use HAs
Factors for HAs not being used: stigma, cost and inefficiency
1. Decreased audibility
2. Loudness recruitment
3. Decreased frequency resolution
4. Decreased temporal resolution
A good hearing loss (HL) compensation algorithm should
compensate for all the above four factors but often not possible
Most HAs compensate for 1 and 2
Effect:
More loss at HF
Possible solution:
Frequency dependent gain
Measured by:
Audiograms
2) Loudness recruitment 2) Loudness recruitment
10
2
10
3
10
4
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Frequency (Hz)
T
h
r
e
s
h
o
l
d

o
f

h
e
a
r
i
n
g

(
d
B

S
P
L
)
Thresholds of hearing for normal & HI listeners
Normal hearing
Hearing impaired
20 40 60 80 100 120
Very soft
Soft
Comfortable
Loud
Very loud
Too loud

Input level (dB SPL)
L
o
u
d
n
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
n
g
Loudness growth curves for normal & HI listeners
Normal hearing
Hearing impaired
Effect:
Loud sounds are just as loud
Possible solution:
Compression
Measured by:
Loudness growth curves
3) Frequency resolution 3) Frequency resolution 4) Temporal resolution 4) Temporal resolution
Effect:
Upward spread of masking increases
Possible solution:
Sharper and narrower filter banks
Measured by:
Psychoacoustic tuning curve
10
3
10
4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Desired tone frequency (Hz)
D
e
s
i
r
e
d

t
o
n
e

t
h
r
e
s
h
o
l
d

(
d
B

S
P
L
)
4 kHz tuning curve for normal & HI listeners
Masker
Normal hearing
Hearing impaired
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Desired-Masker tone separation (ms)
D
e
s
i
r
e
d

t
o
n
e

t
h
r
e
s
h
o
l
d

(
d
B

S
P
L
)
Temporal resolution at 4 kHz for normal & HI listeners
Normal hearing
Hearing impaired
Effect:
Temporally masking of weak sounds
Possible solution:
Vary gain to get normal masking threshold
Measured by:
Psychoacoustic tuning curve
Behind The ear In the Ear
In the Canal Completely in the canal
Microphone
Tone hook
Volume control
On/off switch
Battery compartment
Ear mold measurements
Hearing aid fitting Hearing aid fitting
So, do you want your HA to:
1) Be comfortably loud
2) Have loudness Equalization
3) Have loudness Normalization
?
?
Which fitting methodology is the Which fitting methodology is the best best??
O/P
H
1
(w)
Level
Detector
Gain
Computation
H
2
(w)
Level
Detector
Gain
Computation
H
n
(w)
Level
Detector
Gain
Computation
O/P Limiting
Compression
I/P
HA parameters optimization HA parameters optimization
Factors contributing to optimization complexity:
Dimensionality of the parameter space is large
The determinants of hearing-impaired user satisfaction are unknown
Satisfaction evaluation through listening tests is costly and unreliable
Acclimitization
Speech Intelligibility
Objective Measures
AI, STI
Speech Quality
Objective Measures
PESQ
Subjective Measures
MOS
Speech Intelligibility (SI): The degree
to which speech can be understood
Performance metrics Performance metrics
Subjective Measures
HINT
Speech Quality: Does the speech
match your expectations?
Sensorineural Hearing Loss [10 20 30 60 80 90] dB HL
Noise level =65 dBA and Speech level=65dBA
Spectrograms and sound files Spectrograms and sound files
HI with Linear gain Normal hearing
HI with RBC gain
HI with NR-RBC gain
First functional Brain Machine Interface (BMI) First functional Brain Machine Interface (BMI)
Definition:
A device that electrically stimulates the auditory nerve
of patients with severe-to-profound hearing loss to
provide them with sound and speech information
Severe-to profound sensorineural hearing loss
Limited benefit from hearing aids
Hearing loss did not reach severe-to-profound
level until after acquiring oral speech and
language skills
Worldwide:
Over 100,000 multi-channel implants
At Univ of Florida:
Implanted first patient in 1985
Currently follow over 400 cochlear patients
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Surgical issues
Technical and Safety Issues Technical and Safety Issues
Parts of a CI Parts of a CI
1. Electrode design
Number of electrodes, electrode configuration
2. Type of stimulation
Analog or pulsatile
3. Transmission link
Transcutaneous or percutaneous
4. Signal processing
Waveform representation or feature extraction
Compressed Analog (CA)
Continuous Interleaved Sampling (CIS)
Multiple Peak (MPEAK )
Spectral Maxima Sound Processor (SMSP)
Spectral Peak (SPEAK)
6 channel
PR: 100-2500 pulses/sec
F0/F1/F2 +HFs
Unvoiced: 250 pps
4 electrodes
16 bands [16/22 electrodes]
6 max O/P every 4ms
PR: 250 pps
Strategy: MPEAK or SPEAK
Vary selected maxima: 5-10
Vary PR: 180-300pps
For BB: more maxima, less PR
For NB: less maxima, more PR
Preserves temporal and spectral data
Wide range of success
Most score 90-100% on AV sentence materials
Majority score > 80% on high context
Performance more varied on single word tests
Definition:
The ABI is a surgically implanted device that bypasses the
damaged auditory nerves by providing electrical stimulation to
the cochlear nucleus of the brainstem
Who is a candidate?
ABI is designed to provide sound to people with
Neurofibromatosis Type II (NF2) who become deaf when
tumors are removed from their AN
Be at least twelve years of age
Have the ABI placed during tumor removal surgery
Have appropriate expectations and be prepared to participate
in a follow-up program
The first patient was implanted with the Multichannel
ABI in 1992.
So far over 100 NF2 patients have received the device.
How does an ABI work? How does an ABI work?
Ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) transmitssound frequency
information to higher auditory centers
VCN is tonotopically organized
How does an ABI work? (contd.) How does an ABI work? (contd.)
Approved October 20, 2000
Uses the Nucleus 24 system processors
Plate array with 21 electrodes
Most commonly used:
Mode: Monopolar
Coding strategy: SPEAK
No of electrodes: 8
82% of the implanted subjects were able to perceive
sound and use the device postoperatively
85% of the subjects demonstrated statistically significant
improvements in open-set sentence understanding when
using the Nucleus ABI in conjunction with lip-reading.
Speaker tracking is not possible with single
microphone
Multiple microphones facilitate spatiotemporal
filtering
Setup consists of two microphones with the first
microphone assumed as origin
Distance of the wavefront from microphone is:
The direction of source is given by:
s
k
dF m
Nc
) 1 (
sin
-
=
k
d sin
Differentiate speech source from noise source
Overcome problems of signal distortion due to noise
Prevent loss of accuracy due to room reverberations
DOA Algorithms
Spatial Correlation
methods
Subspace decomposition
methods
MUSIC
Multiple Signal Estimation
ESPRIT
Estimation of Signal parameters
using rotational invariance
Delay and Sum Minimum Variance
Coherent MUSIC
Root MUSIC
Types of DOA estimation a Types of DOA estimation algorithms lgorithms
DOA Method Equation for Implementation
Delay and Sum
Minimum
Variance
MUSIC
Coherent
MUSIC
Root MUSIC
ESPRIT
*
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DOA implementation equations DOA implementation equations
Responsible factors
Sampling rate
Baseline distance
Number of microphones
1. Delay-and-sum:
Require prior knowledge of the direction of propagation
of signals i.e. delay per microphone
2. Minimum variance:
These algorithms adapt their computations to the
characteristics of the signal
3. Generalized side-lobe cancellers:
Uses the delay-and-sum technique for beamforming and
adaptively cancels noise
The oldest and simplest beamforming technique
Add incoming signals with appropriate delay to reinforce signal with
respect to noise
(

A A + - = -

-
=
) ) ( ( ) (
0
1
0
t y w t z
m
M
m
m
) (
1
t y
Setup similar to delay-and-sum beamformer
Weights are chosen to minimize the weighted array power output for
non-desired look directions
The weights maintain unity gain along desired direction and
constructively add the signal

1
1
) (
-
-
'
= e R e P
e R e
e R
w
1
1
0
-
-
'
=
Target-Signal
Filter [H
1
]
Signal Blocking [B] Adaptive Filtering
[H
2
]
Speech
Delay Compensation
Noise wave front
+
-
Speech wave front
Best performance among the three algorithms
Adaptive filtering decreases throughput
Mismatch in delay lowers array gain
Reverberations reduce the effectiveness of adaptive filtering
Poor performance at low frequencies
Sensitivity decreases as inter-microphone distance decreases
Poor noise cancellation at small baseline
Phase lag of border frequencies is
Beampattern chosen to have null at
90 degree and unity gain at
broadside
The weights are calculated at
individual frequency bins
Signal is multiplied by weights in
frequency domain and brought
back to time domain via IFFT
c
d
L
L

sin
=
c
d
U
U

sin
=
S N
N
jkd jkd
jkd
e e
e
w

sin sin
sin
1
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-
-
=
S N
jkd jkd
e e
w
sin sin
2
1
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-
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t j
nd
j
M
m
m
e e w t y

- =
-
-
=

sin
2
1
0
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Frequency independent beamformer outperforms other
techniques in terms of recognition improvement.
Anatomy
e.g. Pinna, Ossicles, Cochlea
Psychoacoustics
e.g. AN coding, Masking
Engineering Applications
e.g. Hearing aids, Cochlear implants, ABI
http://www.cnel.ufl.edu/~meena/ppt.htm
Contact: meena[@]cnel.ufl.edu