Received 29 November 2009; accepted 12 March 2010

*Corresponding author. Tel: 234 8034481461

E-mail address: olaleyebm@yahoo.com
doi: 10.1016/S1674-5264(09)60276-3
A review of light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation in oil and gas well drilling
OLALEYE B M
*

Department of Mining Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
Abstract: The prospect of employing Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER) for well drilling in oil
and gas industry was examined. In this work, the experimental works carried out on various oil well drilling operations was dis-
cussed. The results show that, LASER or LASER-aided oil and gas well drilling has many potential advantages over conventional
rotary drilling, including high penetration rate, reduction or elimination of tripping, casing, bit costs, enhanced well control, as well
as perforating and side-tracking capabilities. The investigation also reveals that modern infrared LASERs have a higher rate of
rock cuttings removal than that of conventional rotary drilling and flame-jet spallation. It also reveals that LASER can destroy rock
without damaging formation permeability but rather, it enhances or improves permeability and that permeability and porosity in-
creases in all rock types. The paper has therefore provided more knowledge on the potential value to drilling operations and tech-
niques using LASER.
Keywords: LASER; oil; gas; well drilling; simulation; specific energy; spallation
1 Introduction
Rock disintegration and removal is a significant
issue in the process of oil and gas well drilling and
completion. Millions of cubic meters of rock have
been removed, with tremendous capital investment,
over the years as a result of drilling of oil and gas
wells. Approximately 20000 wells of oil, gas and dry
wells were drilled onshore in the United States of
America in 1999, with an average depth of 1830 m.
This is equivalent to approximately 37014 km or ap-
proximately three times the diameter of the earth
(12712 km)
[1]
. Nearly half of the time was spent on
drilling, a quarter of the time on moving tools in and
out of wells and the remaining quarter on casing and
cementing activities. Major potential cost reductions
related to well drilling were likely to come from in-
creasing the rate of penetration of the drill bit into the
earth, and reducing the time involved with moving
tools, such as bits and pipes, in and out of holes, in
general
[1]
. Other than the reservoir rock, a quantita-
tive amount of time can be spent on drilling through
rock strata. Drilling in hard rocks such as granite is
extremely difficult and can expend a great amount of
resources with little penetration resulting. Stuck pipes,
fishing operations for lost tools down holes, and side
tracking procedures, all of which are time and money
consuming processes, are other costly problems as-
sociated with drilling process. Reduction of costs
associated with these drilling operations would have
significant and qualitative economic impacts for ex-
ploration and production operations.
In order to make improvement in these areas, new
technologies and tools would have to be applied that
can take advantage of basic rock destruction mecha-
nisms involving thermal spalling, fusion and vapori-
zation, mechanical stresses and chemical reaction.
All of these destruction mechanisms can be achieved
using Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation (LASER). It has been established that at
lower LASER power levels, rock spalling (chipping)
can be achieved. Increasing the power density of a
LASER beam will result in phase changes and reac-
tions in the rock, including dehydration of clays, and
the release of gases and thermal stresses. Consistent
increase in the beam power density will then melt or
fuse the minerals within the rock and ultimately va-
porize them
[1]
. The alternative method to mechanical
well drilling have been considered and reviewed at
cursory levels since rotary techniques were first in-
troduced, however, none have been seriously consid-
ered as a displacing technology. Industrial experts in
the 1960s and 1970s considered the use of photonic
energy in well construction, but the technical appli-
cation of LASERs was dismissed as energy intensive
Mining Science and Technology 20 (2010) 07520757
MINI NG
SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
www.elsevier.com/locate/jcumt
OLALEYE B M et al A review of light amplification by stimulated emission 753
and inefficient. Their conclusions four decades ago
continue to influence industry misperceptions of
LASER applications, despite massive developments
in LASER system and application particularly those
associated with LASER development programs
[1]
.
In 1994, there was a breakthrough in adapting
high-powered LASERs for use in drilling oil and gas
wells. The results of the investigation showed that
LASER could cut rock of all lithologies; sheer power
shares importance in cutting rock with such parame-
ters as wavelength, purge gas pressure and hole size
and theoretical calculations of the LASER power
needed to spall (break), melt and vaporize rock are
significantly higher than experimental values, ob-
served rock removal energy requirements, effects of
pulsed versus continuous wave LASERs, and the
effect of fluids on LASER/rock removal efficiencies
and concluded that using pulsed LASERs could ac-
complish removing material from rock more effi-
ciently than continuous wave LASERs
[2]
. It was also
observed that the efficiency of the cutting mechanism
improved by saturating porous rock samples with
water, and that a LASER beam injected directly
through a water layer at a sandstone sample was able
to spall and melt the sample
[3]
.
2 Potentials of LASER drilling and con-
ventional drilling
The potential use of LASER is broad and with a
diverse range of control mechanisms. Using both the
parameters of the LASER and the properties of the
rock, the rock can be chipped, melted or even vapor-
ized. Making a more direct comparison of the poten-
tial of LASERs and the conventional drilling tech-
niques, the apparent difference is in the equipment
used which is smaller and requires fewer moving
parts, but the mechanical differences between a drill
and a LASER are easily seen. The implications of
these are the persuasive aspect of the use of LASERs
and may be the most valuable area of comparison.
Laser drilling not only allows continuous information
to be gathered over a subsurface profile but also al-
lows for a continuous understanding of the subsur-
face distribution of contamination
[4]
.
In conventional drilling, the process is slow and
much of the time used is with support services to
help and facilitate the drilling rather than the actual
drilling. Reference [5] found out that only 50% of the
time spent on drilling actually saw the drill used to
make the hole, 25% of the time was spent on tripping
and the remaining 25% of the time was spent on cas-
ing and cementing. The use of lasers offers the po-
tential to reduce much of this non productive time
and processes and as well reduces costs, for example,
with a laser, there is no need for bit replacement, drill
string removal and setting casings. It is also esti-
mated that the use of LASERs will increase drilling
speed at anywhere between 10 and 100 times the
current rates of using the boring technology. Part of
the increased speed is due to the lack of additional
processes required, however, the use of LASERs is
also potentially much faster than the drilling process
itself. Considering that a typical oil or gas well on
land will cost in excess of $400000 to build and a gas
or oil well that is offshore can cost $4.5 million, a
system that operates between 10 and 100 times faster
will offer significant savings
[5]
. This means that many
more limited wells where extraction had not been
economically viable due to the costs of reaching the
reserves may become viable. Comparing the cost
using the example of a typical gas well of 3048 me-
ters, in wind river, the cost using traditional tech-
niques would be $350000, while the same well
drilled with a LASER would be $35000 or less. The
speed also lowers the time, the time taken to drill a
well may be 10 days or even less, whereas the tradi-
tional method could take 100 days or more. Also, the
footprints of LASERs are also much smaller than
traditional technology, potentially being as small as 9
square meters or less
[6]
. In addition, the high tem-
peratures used to melt the walls of the well eliminate
the need for steel and concrete casings.
3 LASER effect on rock properties
There are different high power LASERs, including
the Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser
(MIRACL), Chemical Oxygen-Iodine Laser (COIL),
and a CO
2
and CO laser. Reference [7] carried out
laboratory investigations on different rock types with
LASER beam interaction to determine how the
beams size, power, repetition rate, pulse width and
exposure time can affect the amount of energy trans-
ferred to the rock for the purposes of spallation,
melting and vaporization. The purpose of the LASER
rock interaction investigation was to determine the
threshold parameters required to remove a maximum
rock volume from the samples while minimizing en-
ergy input. Absorption of radiant energy from the
laser beam gives rise to the thermal energy transfer
required for the destruction and removal of the rock
matrix. Results from the tests indicated that each rock
type has a set of optimal LASER parameters to
minimize Specific Energy (SE) values as observed in
a set of linear track and spot tests. Also, observation
shows the rates of heat diffusion in rocks are easily
and quickly overrun by observed energy transfer
rates from the LASER beam to the rock. As absorbed
energy outpasses heat diffusion by the rock matrix,
local temperature can rise to the melting points of the
minerals and quickly increase observed SE values.
Just prior to the onset of mineral melt, the lowest SE
values are obtained in the spalling zone. Table 1
shows the SE of the different types of drilling meth-
ods.
Mining Science and Technology Vol.20 No.5 754
Table 1 Specific Energy of Conventional and
LASER drilling techniques
[8]
Conventional drilling SE (kg/cm
3
)
LASER
drilling
SE (kg/cm
3
)
Cavitation jet
High pressure water jet
High pressure water jet
High pressure water jet
Rotary diamond
Rotary drag
Rotary roller drag
2.9
1.4
0.9
0.3
1.4
0.4
0.8
CO
2 laser
CO laser
COIL
Nd: YAG
37.4
22.8
7.2
5.9
High temperatures induced by LASERs on rock
samples could enhance porosity and permeability;
high temperatures evaporate and alter cementation
minerals and create additional connected pore space
within the affected region. This helps to improve
conditions for the fluid to flow from the formation
into the wellbore, as compared to the damage created
to the rock through conventional applications of ro-
tary drilling and explosive perforations (Table 2).
Table 2 Permeability and porosity before and after
lasing for selected rock types
[9]
Permeability (md) Porosity (%)
Sample
Before
lasing
After
lasing
Before
lasing
After
lasing
Berea yellow
sandstone (BY)
7754 7914 0.25 0.40
Berea gray
sandstone (BG)
554 674 0.18 0.35
Sandstone
reservoir (Sst)
11.1 30.1 0.18 0.40
Limestone (LS) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Shale (SH) 0.43 0.55 0.01 0.03
The increases in porosity and permeability are re-
lated to the thermal properties of the rock, e.g., ther-
mal conductivity. Sandstone, exhibit a wider range of
temperature distribution and higher permeability dis-
tribution because it has a high thermal conductivity.
The presence of clays could help in enhancing per-
meability of creating micro fractures in the formation.
Water contained within the clays is subjected to flash
vaporization at intense temperature differentials and
with expansion creating fractures. Also, some clays
collapse at specific temperature. For instance, smec-
tite collapses at 550
o
C. Figs. 1~4 depict the Scan-
ning Electron Microscope imaging of the dehydration
of smectite clay with increasing porosity and perme-
ability and the various permeability improvement
using LASER. As a function of temperature, the
strength of the rock is reduced. High temperatures
results in more evaporation, breaking in the cementa-
tion and creating micro fractures, consequently re-
ducing strength and increasing permeability.

(a) Before (b) After
Fig. 1 Dehydration of smectite clay with increasing
porosity and permeability
Fig. 2 Profile permeameter showing improvement in
permeability in sandstone using LASER energy application
P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
m
d
)
Fig. 3 Average permeability before and after lasing
[8]
Y
o
u
n
g

s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
p
s
i

1
0
6
)
Fig. 4 Decrease in Youngs Modulus in every
rock type, using any LASER
[8]

3.1 LASER effect on rock phase behavior

When LASER power is applied, the melting tem-
perature determines any phase change observed in
rock samples. Recent research showed that the melt-
ing temperature of the rock samples increased as the
percentage of quartz increased. Rock destruction de-
OLALEYE B M et al A review of light amplification by stimulated emission 755
creased as the melting temperature of rock increased.
Putting SE into consideration, in this concept, the
greater the percentage of quartz in the rock sample,
the higher the energy consumed in secondary mecha-
nisms, including melting and vaporization. This con-
cept applies more when making deep holes, however,
it could be minimized with shallower holes. Other
parameters, such as physical characteristics surface
may play an important role in LASER/rock interac-
tion, roughness, color, grain cementation, unconfor-
mities in the matrix such as vugs and fractures; and
thermal properties like conductivity, heat capacity
and diffusivity. Two techniques are used in conjunc-
tion to accomplish thermal analysis; Thermogravim-
etric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC). TGA examines thermal stability
while DSC maps the material transitions. These en-
dothermic and exothermic transitions indicate struc-
tural and chemical changes in material. These meth-
ods are used to determine when melting, disassocia-
tion, dehydration and degasification take place.
Fig. 5 shows an example of phase change observed
in a shale sample as a function of measured average
power applied and SE. The laser power ranged from
0.2 to 1.2 kW while all other parameters remained
constant. Two regions were identified as to whether
melted materials were observed after exposure to the
laser. The data points plotted on the left size of the
transition zone represent the samples that exhibit no
traces of melting occurring on the samples, however,
melted material was present on the samples repre-
sented by the data points plotted to the right of the
transition zone. The no-melt zone represents the
samples exposed to lower laser power, and shows
high SE. With a low lasing power, energy is con-
sumed mainly by thermal expansion. As power is
increased, fractures begin to form and mineral melt-
ing temperatures approached. Additional increases in
power result in faster heat diffusion and heating up
the sample. At higher power, the minerals began to
melt resulting in lower SE values.
S
p
e
c
i
I
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
J
/
c
m
)
T
r
a
n
s
i
t
i
o
n

z
o
n
e
Fig. 5 Phase diagram showing No Melt-Melt Zone of
shale sample lased by Nd: YAG
3.2 LASER effects on well drilling/spalling
The removal of rock with LASER spallation is the
use of LASER induced thermal stress that fractures
the rock which is then broken into small pieces prior
to melting. High intensity LASER energy is targeted
at the rock which will have only a very low level of
thermal conductivity, and is focused on a local area
of rock
[2]
. This focusing causes a sharp local tem-
perature rise. The temperature can be maintained at a
temperature just below the melting point of the rocks
melting point. This level of temperature can then be
maintained and is the right level for the rock to be
spalled. This reveals new rock surfaces and can con-
tinue with the aid of high pressure gas purging so that
the rock fragment are blown out of the way. For
smaller holes, single LASERs may be used, but in
addition to this, the creation of larger holes can be
created with the use of a multi LASER beam spot
spallation technique
[2]
. According to Reference [7],
the power for spallation in Berea Grey sandstone was
noted to be 900 W/cm
2
while that of shale was 784
W/cm
2
.
4 Applying LASER spallation to oil and
gas well drilling
The LASER spalling technique can be used to ef-
ficiently drill large diameter holes for oil or gas wells.
Each LASER beam can spall a shallow hole as big as
the spot size usually 1.27 cm in diameter. To cover
large diameter area (20 cm or larger), either the small
spot size beam has to be scanned or multiple, such
beams are overlapped. Fig. 6 shows schematically,
overlapping multiple beam method for drilling large
diameter and deep hole. Because some relaxation
time is needed in order to avoid melting of rock, the
overlapped beam will fire on the rock sequentially or
in groups to create a layer of nearly circular work
face of a desired diameter. With the help of the purg-
ing and flushing system, the rock fragments from this
layer will be instantaneously removed. Then LASER
beams will fire again to spall the second layer of rock.
Layer by layer, a deep hole will be drilled out until
the designed depth is reached. The LASER energy
could be placed down hole by what is referred to as
beam deliverability. This could be achieved by using
fiber optics, hollow fibers, fiber LASERs, and an-
other one most promising is the Direct Diode LASER
which is compact enough to put the entire LASER
mechanism down hole.
Layer 2
Layer 3
Beam on
Beam oII
Fig. 6 Schematic showing overlapping multiple small
LASER beams method to drill larger diameter and deep hole
Mining Science and Technology Vol.20 No.5 756
4.1 Formation pressure control in LASER drill-
ing
Since the objective of LASER drilling is to get
LASER beam energy to the rock face, and because
traditional drilling fluids (mud) used for pressure
control and cutting removal are not transparent to
laser wavelength, drilling should be done with a
transparent fluid. For the initial application, it is an-
ticipated that pressure control and cutting removal
would be accomplished using a high-pressure inert
gas such as N
2
or CO
2
. Since the petroleum industry
has used compressed gas as drilling fluid for many
decades, this is not a new technology.
4.2 LASER effect on perforation of formation
The perforation of the formation can take place
with a wide range of different types of LASER de-
pending on the rock type. The rock can then be
chipped, melted or vaporized in order to bore through
the rock formations. LASERs may equally be used
for the extension of wells or perforation as a result of
the micro fractures, and clay dehydrations that was
created by the use of the LASER
[8]
. The material at
the walls that is melted is impermeable but the prop-
erties of the rock behind that melted wall also im-
proved. However, current explosive charge perfora-
tion method, while capable of creating the hole, sig-
nificantly reduces the permeability of the rock.
4.3 LASER effect on casing and oil and gas well
completion
LASER drilling application has the ability to pos-
sibly create its own ceramic wellbore casing. LASER
spallation operations have indicated that one of the
areas of cost saving is the ability of LASERs to melt
the rock of the well creating an impermeable barrier
that saves the need for casing and cementation. To
achieve this, the rock needs to be melted without be-
ing vaporized. Different-types of rock will have dif-
ferent melting points and the temperatures will vary
according to the condition such as pressure and
composition of the rock. Looking at limestone, the
rock should be heated to the level of disassociation
temperature of the carbonates
[7]
. The temperature for
the disassociation of the calcite is 989
o
C at 760 mm
of pressure and 100% CO
2
while that of dolomite is
between 401 and 480
o
C under the same conditions
[10]
.
There is also the need to remove the CO
2
gas that is
created with disassociation.
Melting points must be monitored individually and
the equilibrium between the compositions of the rock
should be determined. For 10% CaO the temperature
is 2625
o
C, and for MgO is 2850
o
C. The boiling
point for a greater number of potential oil and gas
wells to become viable. It can also be said that LA-
SER beams not only cut rocks efficiently, but also
significantly increase the permeability of spalling-
drilled rock. An innovative LASER perforation sys-
tem will allow the gas and oil industry to rejuvenate
injection and production rates quickly and easily.
5 Results and discussion
Table 1 shows the specific energy of conventional
and LASER drilling techniques while Table 2 shows
the permeability and porosity before and after lasing
for selected rock types. Figs. 1 and 2 depict the de-
hydration of smectite clay with increasing poros-
ity/permeability and the profile Permeameter show-
ing improvement in permeability in sandstone using
LASER energy application respectively. Fig. 3 is the
average permeability before and after lasing while
Fig. 4 is the decrease in Youngs Modulus in every
rock type, using any LASER. Figs. 5 and 6 are the
phase diagram showing No Melt-Melt Zone of shale
sample lased by Nd:YAG and the schematic diagram
showing overlapping multiple small LASER beams
method to drill larger diameter and deep hole respec-
tively. Figs. 7 and 8 depict the differences between
the different phases of spallation mechanism and
LASER/rock destruction respectively.
Fig. 7 Differences between the different phases
Fig. 8 LASER/rock destruction layout
From the tables and figures presented, it is obvious
that the use of LASERs offers a great deal of poten-
tial to reduce cost and increase efficiency as well as
increase care for the environment and allow for CaO
is 2850
o
C and for MgO is 3600
o
C. The differences
between the different phases can be seen in Fig. 7
which shows fractures, melting and vaporization of a
LASER rock while Fig. 8 shows LASER/rock de-
struction in terms of vaporized, melted, dehydrated/
cracks and unaffected zones
[8]
.
Specific energy is the major parameter used for
comparison of different methods of rock removal.
There are secondary effects that can impact specific
1. Vaporized
2. Melted
3. Dehydration and cracks
4. Unaffected
OLALEYE B M et al A review of light amplification by stimulated emission 757
energy calculations, depending on mineralogy, ther-
mal properties and rock properties. Greater percent-
age of quartz present in the rock results to a higher
melting point of rock, therefore greater Specific En-
ergy. Higher power LASER-rock interaction tests
have shown that LASERs can penetrate all rock types
including granite, much faster than conventional
methods. It can also induce fractures in the rocks by
thermal expansion. Application of high power LA-
SERs also can improve rock properties e.g. perme-
ability and porosity as it is revealed that permeability
and porosity increased in all rock types. It is also
possible to control LASER parameters very precisely
to achieve spallation, melting or vaporization of the
rock base on the required application and the phase
change in the rock depends mainly on the rock type,
thermal properties and measured average power
when all other parameters are held constant. Higher
melting point of the rock is obtained if higher per-
centage of quartz is present in the sample, hence
more energy to melt and more energy to vaporize is
required
[11]
.
6 Conclusions
This paper has provided more knowledge on the
potential value to drilling operations and techniques
using LASER, including the ability to cut through
rock more quickly than conventional and other
non-conventional methods, and could also create its
own ceramic wellbore casing. LASER can also de-
stroy rock without damaging formation permeability
but rather, it enhances or improves permeability.
7 Recommendations
The high potential ability of LASER drilling in oil
and gas well drilling has been recognized. Since, the
most optimization objective of most oil and gas in-
dustry is to save time and reduce cost, LASER drill-
ing is highly encouraged. Its most energy efficiency,
higher penetration rates, ability to drill surface to
total depth continuously and to form a tough, ceramic
sheath in the well during drilling are enough good
reasons why the oil and industry should adopt the use
of LASER energy in oil and gas well drilling opera-
tions particularly in Nigeria.
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