DEM simulation of the particle dynamics in two-dimensional spouted beds

X.-L. Zhao
a
, S.-Q. Li
a,

, G.-Q. Liu
a
, Q. Yao
a
, J.-S. Marshall
b
a
Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of the Ministry of Education,
Department of Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
b
School of Engineering, The University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
Available online 4 December 2007
Abstract
A Discrete Element Method (DEM) is used together with the continuum model of turbulent fluids to simulate the periodic spouting of granular
solids in a two-dimensional spouted bed. The bed is contained in a rectangular column of 152 mm width and 15 mm depth with a tapered base.
Glass beads with a diameter of 2 mm are used as bed material. Simulations using the DEM together with a low Reynolds number k turbulence
model for the fluid phase yield predictions of the unstable spout regime, characterized as a periodic upward-moving particle jet. The simulation
results compare well to experimental data obtained using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique, including fluid flow fields, time-averaged
particle velocity profiles, and spout shape. Finally, DEM predictions for distribution of drag and net force on the particles, particle concentration
fields, gas velocity and turbulence field are discussed.
2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Spouted bed; Particle flow pattern; Discrete Element Method; Particle image velocimetry; Fluidization
1. Introduction
Spouted beds are widely used in physical and chemical
applications such as drying, coating, granulation, combustion,
gasification, chemical vapor deposition, etc., in order to provide
efficient mixing rate and high gassolid contact area for coarse,
irregular granular materials [15]. Different from conventional
fluidized beds, the granular phase in spouted beds is agitated by
the gases through a single nozzle, which causes the flow pattern
of particles in spouted beds to be more regular than that in
fluidized beds. Specifically, the particle flow in spouted beds
consists of two distinct regions: a dilute phase core of upward
gassolid flow called the spout, and a surrounding region of
downward quasi-static granular flow called the annulus. From
the point of view of technological need, fundamental studies of
flow pattern of granular solids are of great importance in de-
signing spouted beds for optimal mixing. In addition, better
understanding of the dynamics of spouted beds agitated by a
single nozzle is crucial as a first step toward understanding the
more complex, inhomogeneous convection of particles in multi-
nozzle bubbling beds [6].
The Discrete Element Method (DEM), which can resolve
particle flow behaviors at an individual particle level, has been
widely used for studying granular-fluid flow in fluidized-bed
systems [712]. However, DEM simulations have not been as
successful for simulating the behavior of spouted beds [1317].
Takeuchi et al. [14] report that a primary difficulty is that two-
dimensional DEM simulation has serious problems establishing
stable spouting regardless of adjustments of parameters such as
particle diameter, gas velocity and nozzle-to-bed size ratio, etc. In
fact, our earlier experimental results demonstrated that the
spouting of two-dimensional spouted beds (2DSB) is inherently
not stable, but has a periodicity of approximately 6.4 Hz [18]. The
existing DEM work of spouted beds was mainly focused on 3-D
cylindrical beds, for which unstable problems can be avoided
[1315]. An additional difficulty is that single-point optical
probes were previously used in the measurement of solid flow in
3-D beds, which are not able to effectively validate DEM results
over the whole flow field, particularly in unsteady flows. The
current work uses a two-dimensional spouted bed together with a
whole-field velocity measurement approach (PIV) in order to
permit direct visual observation of the bed behavior.
Another difficulty with previous spouted bed computational
studies was to do with modeling of turbulence within the fluid
phase. In particular, it is necessary to utilize an appropriate
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
www.elsevier.com/locate/powtec

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lishuiqing@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (S.-Q. Li).
0032-5910/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2007.11.044
turbulence model to predict the central jet that penetrates the bed
materials. Nearly all existing DEMwork for spouted beds ignored
the effects of fluid turbulence, which leads to difficulties in
modeling the spoutannulus interface. Such problems did not
become serious in the DEM simulation of the spouted bed with a
draft tube to separate spout and annulus regions [16,19] and even
the simulations of more disordered granular flowin fluidized beds
with dozens of nozzles [12]. Since spouted beds have two distinct
flow regions the dilute spout and the dense annulus the effect
of turbulence on the spout and annulus is complex and influences
the selection of turbulence model.
In this paper, we first present a DEM simulation on the
incoherent spouting of granular solids in a 2DSB, in which a low
Reynolds number k turbulence model is used for the
continuumfluid dynamic (CFD) simulation and a rolling friction
is considered for simulation of particle interactions. In a parallel
experimental investigation, the particle image velocimetry (PIV)
method is used to determine particle velocity distributions from
digital images of the whole bed flow field. The results of the
experimental study are used to validate the simulation results.
2. Numerical models
2.1. DEM of particle motions
We consider a bulk of particles labeled 1, 2, 3,, n, contained
in a spouted bed. The translational and rotational motions of
particle i are governed by the linear and angular momentum
equations,
m
i
d

v
i
dt

j

F
n;ij

F
t;ij
_ _
m
i

F
f ;i
1
I
i
d

i
dt

j

r
i

F
t;ij

M
ij
_ _
2
in which v

i
,

i
, I
i
and F

f,i
are the linear velocity vector, angular
velocity vector, moment of inertia, and drag force of particle i,
respectively, and F

n,ij
, F

t,ij
and M

ij
are normal contact force,
tangential contact force and rolling resistance torque of particle
i with a neighbor particle j that is in contact with particle i. The
normal and tangential contact forces are given by, respectively,

F
n;ij
k
n;ij


v
ij

n
ij
_ _ _

n
ij
3

F
t;ij
min k
t;ij
v

ij

s
ij
_ _
; j

F
n;ij
j
_ _

s
ij
4
where n and s are normal and tangential unit vectors, respectively,
and
n
and
t
are particle displacements in the normal and
tangential directions. The parameter k is the spring stiffness, and
is the coefficient of particle dissipation.
The drag force on particle i can be written as

F
f ;i


1

v
p
_ _
jp
_ _
V
p
; 5
where u

is gas velocity, p is gas pressure, V

p
is particle volume
(V
p
=d
p
3
/6), and is the drag force coefficient, which can in
turn be expressed by a combination of the Ergun equation for
the dense granular regime and the Wen-Yu correlation for the
dilute regime as [7]

150
1
2

d
2
p
1:75

f
1
d
p
j

v
p
j when V0:8
3
4
C
D

f
1
d
p
j

v
p
j
1:65
when N 0:8
:
_

_
6
Here, C
D
is the drag coefficient for a single unhindered particle
evaluated using
C
D

24 1 0:15Re
0:687
_ _
=Re when Re b 1000
0:44 when Re N 1000
_
7
and the particle Reynolds number, Re, is defined as Re=
f
| u

p
|d
p
/
f
.
In Eq. (2), the role of rolling friction is especially considered
in this work. The relative rotation between contacting particles
or between a particle and a wall in contact will produce a rolling
resistance due to the resulting elastic hysteresis loss, related to
the time-dependent particle deformation [20,21]. Since the
particles undergo an internal circulating flow in spouted beds,
they can acquire great rolling velocity, and therefore the rolling
resistance can also become correspondingly large. The rolling
resistance expression proposed by Brilliantov and Poeschel [22]
is used here, given by
M
ij

r
r
i

i
j

F
n;ij
j: 8
The expression (8) is used up to a maximum value for the
rolling torque magnitude, given by
jM
i
j j
j
M
ij
jVI
i

i
=t: 9
The main parameters of DEM simulation are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1
Parameters for particle and fluid simulation
k (kg/s
2
) 800
(kg/s) 0.0042

n
400
e 0.9
0.3

r
0.03
Time step (s) 1.010
6
C

0.09
C
1
1.44
C
2
1.92

k
1.0

1.3
f

exp
2:5
1Ret =50
_ _
f
1
1
f
2
1.00.3exp(Re
t
2
)
206 X.-L. Zhao et al. / Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
2.2. Continuum equations of fluid motion
The continuity and momentum equations for the gas phase
are given by

t

f
_ _

x
i

f
u
j
_ _
0 10

f
u
i
_ _
t


x
j

f
u
i
u
j
_ _


x
j

f

t
_ _
u
i
x
j

u
j
x
j
_ _ _ _

p
x
i
f
d

f
g
11
where ,
f
,
f
,
t
and f
d
are local voidage, gas density, gas
viscosity, turbulence viscosity, and fluid drag force, respectively.
Since the gas turbulence mechanisms in the annulus and the
spout have significant differences, the turbulence model
selected here should cover the two distinct regions of spouted
beds. A suitable model appears to be the low Reynolds number
k turbulence model derived by Jones and Lander [23], for
which the governing equations for the turbulence parameters is
given by

f
k
_ _
t


x
j

f
ku
j
_ _


x
j

f


t

k
_ _
k
x
j
_ _

f
G
k

t
12

f

t
_ _
t


x
j

t
u
j
_ _


x
j

f


t

_ _

t
x
j
_ _

t
k
C
1
f
1

f
G
k
C
2
f
2

t
_ _
13
where k and
t
are turbulence kinetic energy and dissipation
rate, respectively. The source term G
k
and turbulence viscosity

t
are the given by
G
k


t
q
f
2
u
x
_ _
2

v
y
_ _
2
_ _

u
y

v
x
_ _
2
_ _
14

t
C

f
k
2
=
t
; 15
where f
1
, f
2
, f

are coefficients listed in Table 1.

The local voidage is computed at each time step in each
computational fluid cell. When a particle lies in more than one
cell, its volumetric percentage in each cell is to be considered.
The voidage of a given cell can be written as
1

k
c
i1

i
p
6
d
3
p
_ _
V
16
where V(= xyd
p
) is the volume of the cell, and
i
is the
volume percentage of particle i occupied by the local cell.
Xu and Yu [9] emphasized that the coupling between the
continuum fluid model and the particle DEM must satisfy
Newton's third law. Therefore, the drag force of gases on
particles should be calculated using the drag forces of the
particles in the cell by the expression
f
d


k
c
i1

i
F
i;f
V
: 17
3. Experimental
3.1. Set-up and conditions
The experiments are performed using the same conditions as
used for the DEM simulation, using a pseudo-2D spouted bed.
A schematic overview of the 2DSB is given in Fig. 1. The depth
of 2DSB is only 15 mm, which is 1/10 of the width (152 mm) to
ensure particle pattern with little change along the depth
[18,25]. The bed depth is assumed to be sufficiently small to
display pseudo-2D behavior, which is essential for using PIV
technology as a whole-field measuring technique and to validate
the two-dimensional DEM. In addition, wall effects are
negligible since the bed depth is about 7.5 times of particle
diameter, which exceeds the critical value of 5 in literature [33].
The bed is composed of glass beads with a diameter of 2.03 mm
and a density of 2.3810
3
kg/m
3
. The experiments and
simulations are conducted at static height H
c
of 100 mm,
superficial gas velocity U
g
of 1.58 m/s (for a minimum spouting
velocity U
ms
=0.91 m/s).
3.2. Particle image velocimetry
A full plane glass is attached to the front open surface of the
bed as the transparent window for observation and photograph-
ing. Images of solid flows in 2DSB were recorded using a high-
speed camera (Photron, FASTCAM Super 10 K). The camera
provides 512 pixels 480 pixels resolution at 250 frame per
second (fps) and 256 pixels 240 pixels resolution at 1000 fps,
Fig. 1. Schematic overview of the spouted bed set-up.
207 X.-L. Zhao et al. / Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
and can continuously record for several seconds depending on
the resolution and frame speed.
The particle velocities are analyzed by PIV technology using
direct normalized cross-correlation (DNCC) as the interrogation
algorithm. The process of DNCC can be described as follows.
First, the flow field in the first frame is broken up into small
regions called interrogation windows (IW). Next, a search is
performed in the second frame around the neighboring area of
each IW to determine the image window that is most similar to
IW. The similarity is evaluated by cross-correlation coefficient
C
fg
defined by
C
fg

N
i1

N
j1
f
ij

P
f
_ _
g
ij

P
g
_ _

N
i1

M
j1
f
ij

P
f
_ _
2

N
i1

M
j1
g
ij

P
g
_ _
2
18
where f and g are the digital gray images of the IW and the
consecutive window chosen to compare with the IW, respec-
tively. The f
ij
(or g
ij
) refers to the gray value of a single pixel
indexed by (i, j), while f

(or g) is the average of f

ij
(or g
ij
). The
search window that is most similar to IW (referred to as the
matched window, MW) is identified as that for which C
fg
reaches a maximum. At this point, the difference of positions
between IWand MW, (x, y) (in pixel), is obtained, yielding
the horizontal and vertical traveling distance of particles in the
IW during time interval t. Sub-pixel accuracy of (x, y) is
reached using Gaussian 3-point peak fitting [24]. Finally, given
the image magnification (mm/pixel), the velocity components
u and v can be calculated by
u x=t; v y=t: 19
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Particle flow dynamics of 2DSB
Typical flow patterns of particles in a 2DSB are shown using
photographic images for a case with H
c
of 100 mm and
superficial U
g
of 1.58 m/s in Fig. 2. Different from previous
studies in 3-D beds, the spout shape is not steady, but has a
dynamic X geometry, marked with a neck that starts at the inlet
end, propagates upward, and finally disappears at the end of
spout within one cycle (1T). This oscillation coincides with the
phenomena of incoherent spouting in 2DSB by the measure-
ment of bed pressure sequence [25]. The photographic sequence
in Fig. 2 illustrates the different phases of this oscillation. The
Fig. 2. Typical particle flow patterns of 2DSB by imaging experiments (H
c
=100 mm; U
g
=1.58 m/s).
Fig. 3. DEM-simulated flow patterns of particles in 2DSB (H
c
=100 mm; U
g
=1.58 m/s).
208 X.-L. Zhao et al. / Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
particle upward velocity is found to be strongest within a central
jet, or neck. Within this neck region of the spout, particles
move as a group instead of moving individually, as is the case in
other regions of the flow. As the particles within this central
neck move upward, additional particles are entrained from the
annulus, such that the neck grows progressively larger and
denser. When particles reach at the spout end, the spout is
almost choked by the dense cloud of particles. At the same
time, air pressure in the choked spout greatly increases, such
that the particle cluster is scattered in an explosive manner as it
emerges from the end of the spout. Image analysis indicates
very rapid motion of the particles within the spout, with typical
velocity of nearly 1 m/s and oscillation cycle period T of 150
160 ms.
Fig. 3 shows the particle flow patterns of 2DSB by DEM
simulation with inlet gas velocity and static bed height that are
identical to the experiments of Fig. 2. The simulation was
initialized from a static packing state, and then the gas penetrated
the packed bed and finally formed the regular spouting of the
particles after 0.5 s. This spouting of 2DSB is an incoherent one
with a periodicity time of about 160 ms, which agrees well with
the experimental observation at Fig. 2. In addition, the simulation
also indicates that particles move mainly as a group (i.e. cluster)
within the spout region.
4.2. Comparison of whole particle flow fields
Since the flow patterns vary periodically, the particle motions
are averaged within several periods to obtain a time-averaged
particle velocity, in order to more accurately compare simulation
and experimental results. Firstly, the cycle time Twas calculated
by power spectral density (PSD) analysis of instantaneous
velocity in the annulus, and the frame numbers Nselected for the
average must be large enough, which is typically expressed as a
term of 10T(frame speed) to ensure the precision. Fig. 4
shows the comparisons of particle velocity fields in 2DSB by
experiment, those by simulation without turbulence model and
those by simulation with the low Reynolds number turbulence
model suggested by Jones and Lander [23], respectively. The
spout borders where vertical particle velocity is zero are outlined
in Fig. 4. From the experiments, it is concluded that the particle
velocity magnitude in the spout is relatively large, measuring
more than 10 times of that in the annulus. The interface between
the spout and the annulus, yielding the spout width, is also
illustrated in Fig. 4a. Since the turbulence model is not often
used in DEM simulations of fluidized beds [7,9,10], we initially
didn't consider the effect of turbulence in the DEM work.
However, we find that the spout width in cases with no
turbulence is significantly over-predicted. Furthermore, the
spout for the laminar case region irregularly oscillates left and
right, and can't form the relatively symmetric spout observed in
the experiments, as shown in Fig. 2.
Since the spout of 2DSB is a typical diluted gassolid
mixture flow, the gas turbulence may have a great influence on
the lateral diffusion of gas jet in the spout. The low Reynolds
number k turbulence model proposed by Jones and Lander
[23] was introduced in the simulation to predict the turbulence
Fig. 4. Experimental and simulated time-averaged flow fields of particles in
2DSB at H
c
=100 mm and U
g
=1.58 m/s (a) Experimental; (b) Simulation
without turbulence model; (c) Simulation with turbulence model.
209 X.-L. Zhao et al. / Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
intensity. Fig. 4(c) shows the time-averaged particle velocity
vectors in DEM simulations considering the turbulence effect. It
can be seen that the spout shape for the case with turbulence is
much closer to that observed in the experiments due to the
increased gas turbulent viscosity.
4.3. Comparison of particle velocity profiles
Fig. 5(a) shows the quantitative comparison of longitudinal
profile of particle vertical velocity, v
z
, on the spout centerline
between the simulation and experiment at U
g
=1.58 and H
c
=
10.0 cm. The experiments indicate that particles are rapidly
accelerated near the inlet zone (zb1.0 cm). By contrast, the
particle velocity seems nearly flat with a slow acceleration within
the upper spout region. The vertical particle velocity reaches its
maximum value near the spout end, and then decelerates
gradually in the fountain region. Such a profile differs greatly
fromthose observed in full conicalcylindrical spouted beds [26
28], for which the particles are rapidly accelerated to a maximum
near the inlet orifice and then gradually decelerate through both
the spout and fountain. The simulation predicts well the changing
trend of particle vertical velocity along the bed axis.
Fig. 5(b) indicates the comparison of lateral distributions of
particle vertical velocity in the spout between the simulations
and experiments at various bed heights. The simulations agree
well with the experiments at all bed levels. The lateral velocity
profiles from both simulation and experiments exhibit cubic
functions, instead of the parabolic functions reported for 3-D
beds by San Jose et al. [27] and Zhao et al. [28]. The differences
that still exist between simulations and experiments may be
caused by the simplification of the 2D simulation including
calculating errors of porosity or drag force.
Fig. 6 shows the comparison of the lateral profiles of particle
vertical velocities, v
z
, in the 2DSBannulus. Compared to the good
agreement in the spout zone, the simulation only predicts the
variation trend and the magnitude of the experimental profiles.
Near the spout wall, v
z
increases very fast to a maximum v
z_max
and then slowly decreases in a quasi-linear fashion as it
approaches the tapered bed wall. That is, the maximum particle
downward velocity exists at a certain position between the spout
wall and the tapered wall. By comparison, in previous DEMwork
for the 3-D simulation [13], the predicted v
z_max
in the lateral
profiles are usually about five times those obtained experimen-
tally. The reasons for such differences are complex. In this work,
the improvement on predicting the annulus particle velocity is
thought to be attributed to inclusion of rolling friction, since the
rolling friction can slow the flow rheology of granular media in
the dense annulus [34]. The sliding friction of particles near the
tapered wall might also play a significant role. In general, models
of particle rolling and sliding friction are somewhat approximate,
leading to differences between experimental and simulations
results in these regions of the flow. Frictional modeling might also
be responsible for the difference that still exist in the prediction of
spout width between experiment and simulation.
4.4. Prediction of particle forces and concentrations
DEM simulations can also provide some important informa-
tion, such as particle forces, that are difficult to measure in
experiments. Because of the periodic variation of the particle
Fig. 5. Experimental and simulated profiles of particle vertical velocities in the
spout (a) Vertical profile along spout axis; (b) Lateral profile at various bed
levels.
Fig. 6. Experimental and simulated lateral profiles of particle vertical velocities
in the annulus at H
c
=100 mm and U
g
=1.58 m/s.
210 X.-L. Zhao et al. / Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
flow pattern, the parameters are averaged over several periods.
The distribution of drag force on individual particles are
illustrated in Fig. 7(a). The particle drag force has a maximum
value near the entrance of the 2DSB, with acceleration more
than 60 m/s
2
. The drag force continuously decreases as one
progress up along the spout. The particle drag forces in the
annulus are smaller than those in the spout region, and are not
big enough to balance the gravitational forces of the particles.
The net forces on individual particles are also given in Fig. 7(b).
It can be inferred that the particles near the entrance (e.g.
z b3 cm) have the greatest accelerations, which decrease to zero
at the upper spout, yielding the flat-peak longitudinal profiles of
v
z
in the spout shown in Fig. 5(a). The particles in the fountain
region have a negative acceleration because of the low drag
forces with respect to gravity forces.
Fig. 8 shows the distribution of the particle concentration in
2DSB. It can be seen that particle concentration in a majority of
the annulus is about 0.55, which is approximately equal to that
of a packed bed. The particle concentration in the spout ranges
from 0.05 to 0.1, with large gradients associated with particle
entrainment.
4.5. Prediction of gas flow fields
The partition of gas flow through the spout and that through
the annulus plays an important role in evaluating the efficiency
of gassolid contact in spouted beds [14]. Fig. 9 shows the
distribution of gas flow fields in 2DSB. The magnitude of gas
velocity in the spout is much higher than that in the annulus.
The simulation indicates that about 80% of the gases travel
Fig. 7. Distributions of time-averaged particle forces (unit in m/s
2
): (a) drag forces; (b) net forces.
Fig. 8. Contours of time-averaged particle concentration in 2DSB. Fig. 9. Contours of time-averaged gas flow field in 2DSB.
211 X.-L. Zhao et al. / Powder Technology 184 (2008) 205213
through the spout, and the rest flows into the annulus. Takeuchi
et al. [14] report a similar value of 75% in 3-D spouted beds. In
the early stages of modeling of spouted beds, empirical models
of gas velocity profile along the bed height in the annulus have
been developed (Mamuro and Hattori [29], Lefroy and
Davidson [30] and Epstein et al. [31]), which are important in
predicting bed pressure drop as well as the overall bed
operation. The DEM simulation results can be used to evaluate
the accuracy of those empirical models in the future work.
Fig. 10 shows the distributions of gas turbulent kinetic
energy (TKE). It can be seen that the peak of the TKE exists in
the interface between the spout and the annulus in the 2DSB.
This peak can be attributed to the large gradient of gas velocity
at the interface between the spout and annulus. It is noted that
the two peaks of granular temperature similarly occur at the
spoutannulus interface because the collisions of particles near
spoutannulus interface are more violent and frequent than
those in rest positions [18]. The mechanism relating those two
similar phenomena should be further studied in the future. In
addition, it was reported TKE is enhanced by the gasparticle
interaction in the bubbling fluidized bed using DEM-LES (large
eddy simulation) approach[32]. The sub-grid LES model may
be helpful to further clarify this phenomenon.
5. Conclusions
The DEMsimulation has been performed to study particle flow
patterns of 2DSBat a condition of H
c
=100 mmand U
g
=1.58 m/s,
in which the turbulence effect is introduced into the continuum
fluid equations and a rolling friction is introduced in the equation
of particle motion. The imaging experiments indicate that 2DSB
has an incoherent spout characterized as a periodic upward-
moving neck, within which particles move upwardas a group. This
kind of unstable spouting is successfully predicted by the DEM
simulation, with a similar cycle time of 150160 ms as compared
to the experimental results. The comparison of whole particle flow
fields between the experiments and simulations reveals that the
fluid turbulence plays an import role in the DEM simulation. The
low Reynolds number k turbulence model can correct the
description of core jet in the spout, yielding animprovedprediction
of spout shape and particle flow patterns. The simulated particle
velocity profiles by DEM are further validated by the PIV
experiments. The particles exhibit the greatest drag and accelera-
tion magnitudes near the spout entrance, and the drag forces
continuously decrease as particles progress upward in the spout.
The simulation indicates that about 80% of the gas flow travels
through the spout, andthe rest flows through the annulus. The peak
of the turbulence exists in the interface between the spout and the
annulus due to the high velocity gradient within this region.
Nomenclature
F

n,ij
Normal contact force of particle i with particle j
F

t,ij
Tangential contact force of particle i with particle j
F

f,i
Drag force on a single particle i
M
P
ij
Rolling friction torque of particle i with particle j
f
d
Fluid drag force
k Turbulence kinetic energy
Drag force coefficient
Voidage

t
Turbulence dissipation rate

n,ij
Normal displacement of particle i to particle j

s,ij
Tangential displacement of particle i to particle j
k Spring stiffness
Coefficient of particle dissipation
n

ij
Normal unit vectors from particle i to particle j
s

ij
=Tangential unit vectors from particle i to particle j
Friction coefficient

r
Coefficient of rolling friction

f
Fluid viscosity

t
Fluid turbulence viscosity
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 50306012) and National Key
Fundamental Research Project (No. 2002CB211600). After
2007 this work is continuously supported by the NSFC-AF joint
project (No. 50711130637). We are grateful to Dr. Yanlong He
for sending us his dissertation. Author S.Q. Li is grateful to
Dr. Yulong Ding of University of Leeds and Dr. Colin Thornton
of University of Birmingham for their help. The patient
correction to this paper by Ms. Jordan Hartmann and Ms. Yun
Huang is highly appreciated.
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