ELECTRICITY

Electricity is the science, engineering, technology and physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charges. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known electrical effects, such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire. In addition, electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves. In electricity, charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other charges. Electricity occurs due to several types of physics:

FATHER OF ELECTRICITY
The history of electricity goes back more than two thousand years, to the time the Ancient Greeks discovered that rubbing fur on amber caused an attraction between the two. By the 17th century, many electricity-related discoveries had been made, such as the invention of an early electrostatic generator, the differentiation between positive and negative currents, and the classification of materials as conductors or insulators. In the year 1600, English physician William Gilbert conned the term electric, from the Greek elektron, to identify the force that certain substances exert when rubbed against each other. While many believe Benjamin Franklin to be the father of electricity, current findings seem to show otherwise. In 1752, Franklin is said to have performed the famous experiment of flying a kite during a thunderstorm, which led to the discovery that lightning and electricity were somehow related. Modern scientists know this to be something of a tall tale, since being hit by lightning would have been fatal. It's likely that Franklin was actually insulated, away from the path of lightning. The kite experiment helped Franklin establish a relationship between lightning and electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod. Benjamin Franklin went on to observe other phenomena related to electricity, but many believe that he didn't actually discover its true nature. In 1800, Italian-born physicist Alessandro Volta constructed the voltaic pile, later known as the electric battery, the first device to produce a steady electric current. It was Volta, not Franklin, who discovered that certain chemical reactions could produce electricity. Volta also created the first transmission of electricity by linking positively-charged and negatively-charged connectors and driving an electrical charge, or voltage, through them. It wasn't until 1831 that electricity became viable for use in technology. English scientistMichael Faraday created the electric dynamo, a crude precursor of modern power generators. This invention opened the door to the new era of electricity. A few decades later, in 1879, Thomas Alva Edison invented the light bulb.

William Gilbert first coined the term "electricity" from the Greek word for amber. Gilbert wrote about the electrification of many substances in his "De magnete, magneticisique corporibus". He was also the first person to use the terms electric force, magnetic pole, and electric attraction.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Wind The kinetic energy of the wind can be harnessed with turbines that, although they are quieter, sturdier, and more efficient, are not far from the age-old windmill. Once installed, turbines produce no air or water pollution beyond a negligible amount produced during occasional maintenance. Although wind energy can only be generated in windy areas, the potential for wind energy in the United States is tremendous. It is estimated that the wind energy potential in just two states, North and South Dakota, could meet 80 percent of the nation's electricity needs. A potential drawback to wind power is that it relies on a naturally variable resource that, though renewable, can not be turned on and off according to demand. But the fact that the wind is likely to be blowing somewhere has underlied findings that up to half of overall system energy could be derived from wind power before running into problems associated with variability. Wind power now contributes less than 1 percent of the electricity used in the US, but it is also the least expensive and fastest growing renewable energy source. Solar The solar energy falling on the Earth each day equals nearly 500,000 times the electric power capacity of the United States. This energy can be converted directly to electricity by photovoltaic cells (PVs) which produce an electric current when struck by sunlight. Because the solar energy supply is inexhaustible, its potential for electricity generation is limited only by the efficiency at which we can capture it and the amount of surface area we can devote to it. PVs are typically 99 percent silicon, an inert substance which is the second most abundant element on Earth and a primary constituent of sand. PVs work without sound, air or water emissions, moving parts, and require little maintenance and no water. Even when you consider the manufacture of photovoltaics the environmental impacts are very low, and the PVs themselves are recyclable after their useful life ends. Currently solar power contributes less than 1 percent of our electricity. Expansion has primarily been hampered by its high cost, although this has fallen significantly in the last decade. Another drawback to PVs is that they only generate electricity when the sun is shining. At a small scale, therefore, some sort of energy storage or back-up system is required. At larger scales, however, studies and field experience have shown that integrating intermittent PV-generated electricity into the electric grid provides few technical difficulties, even when considering much higher levels of solar power usage. Biomass Biomass refers to wood, crops, harvest residues, urban refuse, or methane gas produced by landfills that are burned to spin turbines and produce electricity. Biomas is an attractive energy source because it avoids two drawbacks accompanying most other forms of renewable energy: high cost of collection and intermittency. The solar collectors are the leaves of plants, requiring much less capital than wind turbines or PV cells and providing a convenient medium for energy storage, allowing electricity to produced on-demand, and contributing no net carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. However, if biomass were used for electricity production on a large scale, the impacts would be significant. For example, commercial applications of biomass would require vast acreage of fertile land to be committed to trees or crops grown specifically for energy production. Furthermore, biomass-fueled electricity production would also be extremely water intensive. Put in perspective, to produce electricity for just one household over the course of a year with biomass as a source would require over 25,000 gallons of water and almost three quarters of an acre of land. It also produces 232 pounds of carbon monoxide per household each year -- more than thirty times the level of any other source, as well as significant amounts of other air pollutants. Combustion of wood now contributes about 1 percent of the nation=B9s electricity supply, and the electricity generated from waste about half that amount. Waste is not considered a viable option for large-scale electricity production and is not a truly renewable resource.

Hydroelectricity The kinetic energy of flowing water can also be used to spin turbines. Hydroelectricity, which currerntly generates about 9 percent of the nation's electricity, is renewable, can produce electricity on-demand, and generates electricity with few emissions. On the other hand, a dam can have devastating impacts on the ecological systems up and downstream. In the United States alone there are more than 5,500 large dams impeding our rivers, leaving less than 2 percent of our country's 3.1 million miles of rivers and streams flowing free. An important distinction to make, however, is between large and small hydroelectric projects. Large hydro projects involve constructing a large dam on a river and flooding its river basin to create a reservoir. Small hydroelectric plants generate less than 30 megawatts of electricity and have much smaller impacts than large hydro projects, though they may not always be able to provide ondemand power because they are much more susceptible to variations in river flow. Because the most promising large dam sites in the United States have either been developed or protected, and because the general public has become outspoken about the negative impacts of large dams, dam construction has been declining. Natural Gas Natural gas was formed millions of years ago when buried organic matter was subjected to very high temperatures and pressures. Although the formation process continues, the rate is negligible compared to the rate of human extraction, making natural gas a non-renewable resource. Natural gas may be found along with coal or oil, or it may be found alone; off-shore drilling is becoming more prevalent, with about one-fifth of U.S. natural gas coming from off-shore sites. Once extracted and refined, the gas is burned to create steam, which then turns turbines to produce electricity. About 15 percent of US electricity comes from natural gas combustion. Like coal, natural gas is relatively cheap, the technology involved is simple and widespread, and electricity can be produced on-demand. It produces much lower levels of air pollutants such as particulates, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides than coal, but significantly more than other source apart from biomass. For instance, a household supplied only by natural gas for a year would generate 24 pounds of air-borne particulate matter which has been implicated in respiratory infection and asthma. Maybe most significant, however, is the amount of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide emitted during natural gas combustion: over 10,000 pounds per household per year if natural gas were the sole source. Touted as the cleaner alternative to coal, this claim may be true, but it doesn't make natural gas sustainable. Coal Coal production has been increasing since the 1950s, and today the United States extracts huge quantities of coal (over 1 billion short tons in 1998). Currently, coal contributes over half of the nation=B9s electricity, and over 90 percent of the coal produced is used for electricity generation. Besides being cheap and abundant, the only thing that coal has to recommend it is that is can provide power on-demand. Coal mining has major impacts on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In many cases, whole mountaintops are removed for coal extraction, and valleys are filled in with the waste rock (tailings). Whether it is mountain-top removal, open-pit, or underground mining, however, a major problems stems from rain filtering through the coal mine and tailings. Some of the sulfur in the coal dissolves into the water, turning it acidic; this "acid mine drainage" has impacted thousands of stream miles across the country. The combustion of coal also produces many gaseous wastes, some of which are "scrubbed" out of the emission stream in smokestacks, but many are not, including carbon dioxide. A single household being supplied solely from coal-produced electricity would generate over 61 pounds of sulfur dioxide, 60 pounds of nitrogen oxide, 30 pounds of particulates, 6 pounds of carbon monoxide, 2 pounds of volatile organics, and 17,000 pounds of carbon dioxide, and require over 7,000 gallons of water. Nuclear While every other source of electricity is basically solar energy in one form or another, nuclear power harnesses the power contained within the nuclei of atoms. Consequently, risks and impacts involved are unique. With its low emissions and low land use, nuclear seems falsely attractive at first glance, but when you begin to look at its entire lifecycle, the potentially devastating human health and safety concerns are clear. The nuclear fuel cycle begins with the mining of uranium ore (a non-renewable resource), releasing radon (radioactive gas) and creating large amounts of radioactive waste rock (tailings). The uranium is then processed in a highly energy-intensive process and fabricated into fuel rods. Nuclear power plants produce energy through either fission reactions (when an atom of a radioactive element such as uranium or plutonium collides with a neutron, splitting the element apart) or fusion reactions (where two elements collide at high speed, forming one or more heavier elements). In both cases, a large amount of heat is released which is used to create steam to turn turbines and generate electrical energy.

Along with heat, a significant amount of radiation is produced. Radiation is extremely dangerous to people and biological systems, causing acute illness or death at high doses, or cancer or genetic mutations at lower doses. Although most of this radiation is not released into the atmosphere, it does not disappear. It is contained instead in large amounts of radioactive waste, which remains hazardous for many thousands of years. No permanent facility for the storage of high-level waste exists, and even if one is built, it may adequately contain the waste for only 1,000 years. Routine plant operation produces upwards of 3.64 tons of low-level waste per GWh of electricity, and about 30 to 40 tons of high-level waste over the course of a power plant year. The largest volumes of nuclear waste, however, stem from the decommissioning of plants at the end of their life spans. Current decommissioning practices of reactors consist of processing some of the waste, but "mothballing" the reactor core and much of the rest of the reactor in the hopes that better methods of dealing with its might be found in the future. One of the most frightening propositions in the modern world is the event of an accident involving a nuclear power plant or radioactive waste. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has estimated that there is a 45 percent chance of a severe accident occurring in the next twenty years at one of the 109 U.S. reactors. The possibility of an accident and the unavoidable reality of the nuclear waste highlights a moral issue: what are we leaving for our children and all future generations? The risks that stem from the air pollution emitted during fossil fuel combustion are significant, but they have short-term impacts only. The same people (or at least generation of people) that are suffering the costs are also receiving the benefits of that electricity. In contrast, the legacy of the nuclear electricity being produced and consumed today will continue to pose a threat for many generations to come. Nuclear power plants multiplied rapidly during the late sixties and early seventies, but interest declined for various reasons including high operating costs, and public disfavor over the risk of serious accidents after the Three Mile Island incident in 1979. Currently, nuclear provides the United State with a little less than 20 percent of its electricity. More than half of the current reactors are scheduled to retired in the next 20 years and no new ones are scheduled to be built. Consumers can send a loud message to the electricity industry by refusing to buy power that includes nuclear in the mix.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
MATTER Everything in the world is made of matter. Matter is anything that has mass (weight) and occupies space. Matter can be made up of a group or series of different atoms to form a molecule. These groups of atoms (molecules) are sometimes called compounds. Some types of matter can be broken down to a single atom while still maintaining the properties of the original material. These types of material are called elements. Matter has three states: Solid, Liquid, and Vapor. MOLECULE EXAMPLE Imagine a lake. Now imagine taking the smallest particle or piece of water from the lake. You would have a single molecule of water, H2O, which is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Not all materials are made up of molecules. Copper, for example, is made up of a single copper atom. These are called elements. Each element is a type of matter that has certain individual characteristics. THE ATOM One of the basic building blocks in the universe for matter is the atom. All matter - gas, liquid, or solid - is made up of molecules or atoms joined together. These atoms are the smallest particle into which an element or substance can be divided without losing its property. A single atom consists of three basic components: a proton, a neutron, and an electron. Within the atom there is a Nucleus. The Nucleus contains the protons and neutrons. Orbiting around the nucleus are the electrons. An atom is similar to a miniature solar system. As with the sun in the center of the universe, the nucleus is in the center of the atom. Protons and Neutrons are contained inside the nucleus. Orbiting around the nucleus are the electrons.

ATOM CONSTRUCTION An atom is similar to a miniature solar system. As the sun is in the center of the solar system, so is the nucleus is in the center of the atom. Protons and neutrons are contained within the nucleus. Electrons orbit around the nucleus, which would be similar to planets orbiting around the sun. NUCLEUS The Nucleus is located in the center of the atom (shown in red).The Nucleus contains the protons and neutrons.Orbiting around the nucleus are the electrons. PROTONS Protons are located within the nucleus of the atom (shown in blue). Protons are positively (+) charged. NEUTRONS Neutrons add atomic weight to an atom (shown in green). Neutrons have no electrical charge. ELECTRONS Electrons orbit around the nucleus of the atom (shown in yellow). Electrons are negatively (-) charged. Since electrons are lighter than protons and are outside the nucleus, they can be easily moved from atom to atom to form a flow of electrons. Normally electrons are prevented from being pulled into the atom by the forward momentum of their rotation. Electrons are also prevented from flying away because of the magnetic attraction of the protons inside the nucleus, the same type of force that keeps the planets orbiting around the sun. ELECTRICAL CHARGES Opposite electrical charges always attract each other. So these particles with opposite charges will tend to move toward each other. Like electrical charges always repel. So particles with like charges will move away from each other. Remember: Opposites charges attract, and like charges repel. Atoms always try to remain electrically balanced. BALANCED ATOMS Atoms normally have an equal number of electrons and protons. Atoms have no electrical charge. They are neither positive nor negative. They are electrically neutral or BALANCED. The negative charge of the electrons will cancel the positive charge of the protons, thus balancing the charge of the atom. This cancellation of charges creates a natural attraction or bonding between the positive proton and the negative electron. ION PARTICLES When an atom loses or gains an electron, an imbalance occurs. The atom becomes either a positively or negatively charged particle called an ION. These unbalanced charged ION particles are responsible for electron flow (electricity). IONs will take or release an electron to become balanced again. ION CHARGE A positive (+) ION has one less electron than it has protons. A negative (-) ION has one more electron than it has protons. The positive ION attracts a negative ION to become balanced. This attraction or difference in electrical potential causes electron flow.

ELECTRON ORBITS Electrons rotate around the atom at different orbits called Rings, Orbits, or Shells. BOUND ELECTRONS orbit the nucleus on the inner rings. Bound electrons have a strong magnetic attraction to the nucleus. FREE ELECTRONS orbit on the outermost ring which is known as the VALANCE RING. FREE ELECTRONS Only the FREE ELECTRONS in the outermost shell (Valance Ring) are free to move from atom to atom. This movement is called ELECTRON FLOW. These FREE ELECTRONS are loosely held and can easily be moved to another atom or ion. Because of their distance from the nucleus, free electrons have a weak magnetic attraction. Since this attraction is not as strong to the nucleus as the bound electrons on the inner orbits, the electrons move easily from atom to atom. INSULATORS An INSULATOR is any material that inhibits (stops) the flow of electrons (electricity). An insulator is any material with 5 to 8 free electrons in the outer ring.Because, atoms with 5 to 8 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) tightly to the atom, they CANNOT be easily moved to another atom nor make room for more electrons. Insulator material includes glass, rubber, and plastic. CONDUCTORS A CONDUCTOR is any material that easily allows electrons (electricity) to flow. A CONDUCTOR has 1 to 3 free electrons in the outer ring.Because atoms with 1 to 3 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) loosely to the atom, they can easily move to another atom or make room for more electrons. Conductor material includes copper and gold. SEMICONDUCTORS Any material with exactly 4 free flectrons in the outer orbit are called SEMICONDUCTORS. A semiconductor is neither a conductor or insulator. semiconductor material includes carbon, silicon, and germanium. These materials are be used in the manufacturer of diodes, transistors, and integrated circuit chips. Two Current Flow theories exist. The first is: *ELECTRON THEORY The Electron Theory states that current flows from NEGATIVE to POSITIVE. Electrons move from atom to atom as they move through the conductor towards positive. *CONVENTIONAL THEORY Conventional theory, also known as HOLE THEORY, states that current flows from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE. Protons or the lack of electrons (the holes) move towards the negative. (Current flow direction in Hole Theory is the opposite of that in Electron Theory.) VOLTAGE Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF (Electro Motive Force) that pushes electrons. The greater the difference in electrical potential push (difference between positive and negative), the greater the voltage force potential. MEASUREMENT A VOLTMETER measures the voltage potential across or parallel to the circuit. The Voltmeter measures the amount of electrical pressure difference between two points being measured. Voltage can exist between two points without electron flow.

VOLTAGE UNITS Voltage is measured in units called VOLTS. Voltage measurements can use different value prefixes such as millivolt, volt, Kilovolt, and Megavolt. LARGER LESS THAN VOLTAGE BASIC UNIT THAN BASE UNIT BASE UNIT Symbol Pronounced Multiplier mV millivolt 0.001 V Volt 1 kV Kilovolt 1,000

CURRENT (AMPERES) CURRENT is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past a point within one second. Current flow is also known as amperage, or amps for short. Higher voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower voltage will produce lower current flow. MEASUREMENT An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow.Ammeters are placed in series (inline) to count the electrons passing through it. Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it. AMPERAGE UNITS Current flow is measured in units called Amperes or AMPS. Amperage measurements can use different value prefixes, such as microamp, milliamp, and Amp. AMPERAGE Symbol Multiplier LESS THAN LESS THAN BASIC UNIT BASE UNIT BASE UNIT A 0.000001 mA milliamp 0.001 A Amp 1

Pronounced Microamp

AFFECTS OF CURRENT FLOW Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and Electromagnetism. HEAT: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the current flow the greater the heat generated. An example would be a light bulb. If enough current flows across the filament, it will glow white hot and illuminate to produce light. ELECTROMAGNETISM: When current flows, a small magnetic field is created. The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. An example: Electromagnetism principles are used in alternators, ignition systems, and other electronic devices. RESISTANCE Resistance is the force that reduces or stops the flow of electrons. It opposes voltage. Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons and lower resistance will allow more electrons to flow.

MEASUREMENT An OHMMETER measures the resistance of an electrical circuit or component. No voltage can be applied while the ohmmeter is connected, or damage to the meter will occur. Example: Water flows through a garden hose, and someone steps on the hose. The greater the pressure placed on the hose, the greater the hose restriction and the less water flows. RESISTANCE UNITS Resistance is measured in units called OHMS. Resistance measurements can use different value prefixes, such as Kilo ohm and Megaohms. MORE MORE AMPERAGE BASIC UNIT THAN THAN BASE UNIT BASE UNIT Symbol Pronounced Multiplier Ohm 1 K Kilo ohm 1,000 M Megaohm 1,000,000

RESISTANCE FACTORS Various factors can affect the resistance. These include: LENGTH of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the higher the resistance. DIAMETER of the conductor. The narrower the conductor, the higher the resistance. TEMPERATURE of the material. Depending on the material, most will increase resistance as temperature increases. PHYSICAL CONDITION (DAMAGE) to the material. Any damage will increase resistance. TYPE of MATERIAL used. Various materials have a wide range of resistances.

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ASSIGNMENT 1

ELECTRICITY
Pulido, Danielle Justine R. ICET 2C Engr. Ballesteros

June 27, 2012