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Contents
4 Battery standards work is real work
Volunteers work geared to helping engineers design safe products for all.
18 Tech Report
Energy EV evolution will require changes in nations power distribution grid Energy Rough road ahead for EV battery costs Energy SAE J1772 combo connector inches closer to adoption Simulation A new approach to Li-ion battery modeling Powertrain Marsilli advances open poles motor winding for hybrids
Electrifying Success
CD-adapco has embarked on a journey of collaboration to create a simulation system which is relevant and focused on todays trends within the automotive marketplace. The journey so far has taken in energy storage technology, electric machines analysis, electro-thermal behaviour and continues apace to deliver engineering success to all our users. The system is built around the class-leading CAE tool STAR-CCM+, a tool which deals with complex, heavy weight 3D resolved physical phenomena. These could include a tightly coupled thermal-electromagnetic problem or an electrochemical-thermal process, all solved within one code, STAR-CCM+. Aligned to this complex heart of the solution are specific design level tools which are focused on the problems design engineers face in the early part of a project. Such tools allow a subsystem to be developed which parachutes the user into the correct design space before deploying STAR-CCM+ to gain those final few percent that make the difference. The value of such a simulation ecosystem is that there is no duplication. Information entered at the component level is directly interpreted into the complex 3D simulation, allowing a range of engineering groups to use the same models in differing circumstances. This is evident in electric machines design where the upfront analytic tool is used to create a machine which delivers the required torque/speed characteristics. The model is then passed to a thermal group who seamlessly transfer it into a detailed 3 dimensional analysis, adding surrounding cooling systems and componentry, which is used to understand local maximum temperatures within the proposed machine under previously defined operating loads. Such a tight integration between design tools and analysis tools provides the most value from a groups investment in analysis while avoiding redundant calculations.
For more information on this growing simulation system designed by world-renowned leaders in analysis with the simple aim to solve your engineering problems and ensure you achieve engineering success, please visit: www.cd-adapco.com. Follow us online. For more information: info@cd-adapco.com www.cd-adapco.com/automotive
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SAE Vehicle Electrification, June 26, 2012, Volume 3, Number 3, (ISSN 2159-4279) is published 6 times a year by SAE International. SAE International is not responsible for the accuracy of information in the editorial, articles, and advertising sections of this publication. Readers should independently evaluate the accuracy of any statement in the editorial, articles, and advertising sections of this publication that are important to him/her and rely on his/her independent evaluation. For permission to use content in other media, contact copyright@sae. org. To purchase reprints, contact advertising@sae.org. Copyright 2012 by SAE International. The SAE Vehicle Electrification title is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
www.dspace.com
System Architecture
ECU Autocoding
HIL Testing
System Architecture
ECU Autocodin g
HIL Te stin g
System Architecture
ECU Autocodin g
HIL Te stin g
System Architecture
System Architecture
Any has Autocodin and Rapid Control Prototyping new technology ECU to be sound g fail-safe like the electronic control HIL Te stin g
System Architecture
Rapid Control Prototyping ECU Autocodin g HIL Te stin where dSPACE comes into play. As the experts in hardware-in-the-loop g
simulation, dSPACE o ers special simulation models and real-time hardware to put the ECUs through the ultimate tests. With models for lithium-ion batteries and nickel metal hydride batteries for
realistic battery management tests and real-time hardware for high voltage accuracy and galvanic separation - testing is precise, quick and safe.
Battery researchers at Argonne National Laboratory have an arsenal of powerful, hightech weapons and facilities to help them in their work.
SAE Vehicle Electrification went to the U.S. Department of Energy lab in late May to meet with Daniel Abraham, a materials scientist who has been at the lab for 19 years and has focused on lithium battery technology for the past 12. He highlighted some of the work Argonne is doing and offered a Li-ion battery primer of sorts. Were constantly pushing the boundaries of the Li-ion batterys limits, he said from his office in a plain red brick building that also houses state-of-the-art labs and testing equipment. Theres nothing plain about the research being done in that building and in additional facilities on the 1500-acre (600-ha) campus, including the Blue Gene/P supercomputer and the Advanced Photon Source, which offers the western hemispheres brightest storage ringgenerated X-ray beams for research in almost all scientific disciplines. The battery industry is rather structured, according to Abraham, with cathode makers concentrating on cathodes materials, anode
SAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
makers on anode materials, etc. Battery manufacturers, such as Johnson Controls and A123 assemble the various components into lithium-ion cells. We examine the components as well as the whole cell, he said, because all of these components in the cell talk to each other. Thats where diagnostics comes in. Diagnostics includes opening up a test cell and doing a postmortem on italthough the cell doesnt have to be completely dead, Abraham quipped. The task is to find out what went wrong in the cell. The goal is to come up with ideas to minimize or eliminate the processes that degrade cell performance. Some of our diagnostic studies are conducted in situ; that is, we watch the behavior of cell components during charge and discharge using X-rays from the Advanced Photon Source and electrons from the Electron Microscopy Center, said Abraham. The 80 scientists and engineers (including students and post-docs) working in battery
Were constantly pushing the boundaries, says Argonne battery expert Daniel Abraham while holding a sample in a glove box.
research at Argonne produce their own cells (mainly coin sized) to evaluate different chemistries. At any given moment at Argonne, hundreds of cells are being evaluated. The focus is on performance, safety, life, and cost. Abraham, who holds a Ph.D. in Metallurgical Engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, noted that much of the initial basic science for Li-ion batteries was done (and patented) in the U.S., but the technology was developed and commercialized in Japan. Still, he said, some of the best research in the world is still being done here with expertise in individual battery components as well as the entire cell. The idea at Argonne, as with all national labs, is to transfer the technology to U.S. companies. Helping the U.S. establish a strong Li-ion battery manufacturing capability to match is research capability is a goal of
Argonne and of the U.S. federal government, which is helping support both via a multibillion-dollar funding program. The lab got $8.8 million under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act to beef up its battery R&D capabilities. There are many examples of Argonne battery research finding end use in commercial applications. In addition to licensing its technology to General Motors, BASF, Envia, LG Chem, and Toda America, it is working with Dow Chemical and Western Lithium on new development projects. The separator is the component of the battery that Argonne studies least, since it is an inactive element. In Li-ion battery research and development, youre limited by the cathode, so that is where a lot of our focus is, Abraham said. Higher voltage is a goal for the cathode, but you need the electrolyte to keep up with the cathode. Most current electrolytes cannot keep up and so researchers at Argonne and elsewhere are experimenting with new electrolytes and new electrolyte additives. Li-ion cells generally have a liquid electrolyte that because of its organic content can be flammable. A ceramic-based solid electrolyte has no organic content, according to Abraham. However, the cycling of Li ions between electrodes, called ionic conductivity, occurs at a much slower pace with a ceramic electrolyte. As a compromise, you could have something thats between a liquid and a solida gel, he said. Thats the kind of (alternative solutions) we look at. Since the movement of ions back and forth between electrodes (and the corresponding, one-for-one movement of electrons through an external circuit) is what makes a Li-ion
Lithium ions follow a tortuous path along and through various particles in a cell. This image of an oxide particle from a new high-energy cathode was obtained at Argonnes Electron Microscopy Center.
battery cell, anything that impedes that movement is a target for eradication among researchers at Argonne and elsewhere. In what amounted to a primer on batteries, Abraham noted that ions travel within the cell as part of larger associations with solvent molecules, not as individuals. He also noted that the faster the Li ions are asked to move via applied current, the more they resist; moreover, the faster they are asked to move, the less energy typically can be extracted from the cell. In explaining this, he used the analogy of a bucket being filled with water. Pour water into it slowly, it will fill all the way up. Pour water into it too quickly, some of the water will splash out onto the ground. Continuing in primer mode, he explained that the speed with which ions are able to move between the electrodes (from anode to cathode during battery use, or discharge; from cathode to anode during charging) is measured as power. Power=energy/unit time. High power allows for fast vehicle acceleration and fast recharging. With fast
recharging ability, the oftentimes large amount of mechanical energy created during vehicle braking can more fully be captured and converted to chemical energy. Many factors determine the speed of ion movement, according to Abraham, including electrode construction, distance between electrodes, and thickness of the separator. Electrode construction/morphology is an area of great concentration at Argonne, as changing the shape and size of particles on the electrodes can, among other things, reduce the tortuousness of the path along which ions travel through and out of the electrodes (and back). The opposite of a tortuous path is a straight line. Modifying particle size/morphology also helps with better material packing within the electrode, thereby increasing energy density of an electrode, Abraham said. Helping ions move fast is important, but even more important is keeping them in circulation. The complex chemistry in the cell includes unwanted ion traps in the form of
Close-up view of the main solid components of a Li-ion cell. An electrolyte helps conduct the Li ions between the positive electrode (cathode) and the anode. At top is a schematic of the cell, which also shows the current collectors (aluminum for the cathode, copper for the anode).
side reactions, mainly in what is called the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) at the anodeelectrolyte interface. The problem is compounded by the fact that the insoluble products formed constitute obstacles in the path of the ions remaining in circulation. As more and more ions become trapped, cell capacity and power fade. Abraham explained that the purpose of the SEI is to prevent solvent molecules in the electrolyte from penetrating into, and destroying, the anodes graphite structure. Unfortunately, the SEI undergoes a dissolution-reformation process during cycling, especially at high temperatures; portions of it dissolve into the electrolyte, then and a new SEI forms. This process consumes Li ions. With the materials-synthesis tools at their disposal, Argonne scientists also have the capability to change the atomic arrangement of materials. Abraham said that in addition to speeding ion transport, such capability also holds the promise of: increasing cell energy density; increasing oxide/cell voltages; and improving structural stability, which would lead to longer cell life.
SAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
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Argonne researchers have developed an improved, scalable process for the synthesis of a Li-ion battery overcharge protection redox shuttle. Initial discovery amounts of battery materials are small compared to the kilo-scale amounts needed for validation of new battery technologies. In the background is Greg Krumdick (left) and Kris Pupek.
A more recent battery-related activity at Argonne is scale-up of materials production. New cell chemistries are of no use to industry if the process for making the material is not scalable, said Greg Krumdick of the Process Technology Research Group At the lab level, youre just trying to make the material quickly, test it, see if it has the properties you want, he said. You arent looking at the cost of materials, process optimization, amount of waste being generated. [My groups] goal is to be able to make the materials cost-effective so industry will adopt them. The larger the scale, the more accurate the estimate, Krumdick said. Extrapolating tonscale costs based on lab-scale processes is really not going to be accurate. The scale-up focus at Argonne is currently on cathode and electrolyte materials, according to Krumdick. Part of Argonnes $8.8 million in stimulus funding is going to a new lab for Krumdicks group. Current facilities allow it to scale up
SAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
battery materials to about the 10-kg (22-lb) level; the new, partially complete facility, called the Materials Engineering Research Facility, will allow scale-up to about 100 kg (220 lb). Once at that level, scale-up bugs have been worked out and the product is ready for industrial level production, Krumdick noted. The building was designed to meet codes for higher levels of hazardous materials such as those found in the production of some battery components. And even though we were required to Buy American with the stimulus funds, Krumdick said, some of the equipment for the lab had to be purchased from Asia because it wasnt available from U.S. manufacturers. That is the result, he added, of the U.S. having fallen far behind in terms of cell and battery materials manufacturing capability. Argonne is helping the U.S. catch up.
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From technology advances to manufacturing capacity expansions, the foundation of the lithium-ion battery industry is becoming stronger and more viable.
by Patrick Ponticel
B
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attery companies around the world are heavily investing in research to maximize the potential of lithium, as are governments and universities with some risk. Also striving for lower costs and better products are companies along the entire battery supply chainfrom lithium miners to battery recyclers. Right at the heart of the industry and technology sits global chemical giant BASF. The 160-year-old German materials company
is a relative newcomer to lithium-ion battery technology but is making a major commitment to the technology. It was about five years ago that BASF made its foray into Li-ion battery technology, said Dr. Phillip Hanefeld, Global Marketing and Strategy, Battery Materials group, in a presentation at the SAE 2012 World Congress in April. The company has made several recent acquisitions to beef up its capabilities and give it global reach.
Among those acquisitions was Sion Power, a Tucson, AZ-based company whose focus is on lithium-sulfur chemistry. He acknowledged that Li-sulfur technology is some years away from commercialization, with cycle life being a major challenge. Another recent acquisition includes Ovonic, maker of nickel metal-hydride batteries and cathode active materials for that battery type. Every vehicle on the road today with an NiMH battery includes Ovonic technology, according to Hanefeld, who said BASF sees potential synergies with the latters nickel cobalt manganese Li-ion technology. Plus, he said of Ovonic, theyre an excellent crowd of smart people who are coming up with new materials all the time. Two other acquisitions were related to electrolyte: Novolyte and a unit of Merck
KgaA. It will be a couple years, Hanefeld said, before BASF comes out with a new formulation of its own. In addition to acquisitions, BASF has made major advances in battery materials by licensing technologies. The company is perhaps best known for its NCM 111 technology that was licensed from the U.S. Department of Energys Argonne National Laboratory (see other feature in this edition). It has licensed another major lithium-based technology, lithium iron phosphate, from a company called LiFePO4+C Licensing AG. Those two cathode technologies are complementary, Hanefeld said. With NCM, there is lot of room to play by varying the amount of the constituent materials for different end applications. And there is room for significantly improved energy density.
An optimized electrode manufacturing system is tested using screen printing technology. (BASF)
SAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
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The company recently announced plans to invest $140 million in a new lithium carbonate production plant in Chile. In addition, the company is completing previously announced expansions of its lithium brine system in Nevada and a new high-purity lithium hydroxide plant in North Carolina. As of July 1, Rockwood is raising the price of its lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide salts to up to $1000/ tonne. Lithium is plentiful, and there should be little concern about its availability. That is what Dr. Jon Kykawy, Head of Global Research at Byron Capital Markets, told SAE Vehicle Electrification at a recent SAE conference in Detroit.
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A123 Systems says its new Nanophosphate EXT is expected to be capable of retaining more than 90% of initial capacity after 2000 full charge-discharge cycles at 45C (113F).
commercial production of the material at a new plant in Candiac, Quebec. Phostech calls its carbon-coated cathode product (C-LiFEPO4) Life Power P2, which is made in the four-story, 7000-m2 (75,000-ft2) Candiac plant using a wet process developed by SudChemie. Annual capacity of plant is 2500 t (2800 ton). In press materials the company calls the material superior to conventional cathode materials in terms of safety, life cycle, and environmental compatibility. Other benefits cited include high performance at low temperatures, cycling stability, very high discharge power, and fast recharge. Compared to NMC, it offers about twice the life, according to Clariant. The company says demand for Life Power P2 is growing particularly in China, Korea, and Japan. A123 Systems is another major LiFePO player. The company made big news June 12 when it announced a breakthrough advancement of its brand-named Nanophosphate technology that allows for use at extreme temperatures without requiring thermal management. The new product, called Nanophosphate EXT, is designed to maintain long cycle life at extreme high temperatures and deliver high power at extreme lower temperatures, according to A123 press materials. The company adds that testing at Ohio State University shows that cells made with EXT are expected to be capable of retaining more than 90% of initial capacity after 2000 full charge-discharge cycles at 45C (113F). The company expects EXT to offer a 20% increase in power at temperatures as low as -30C (-22F).
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In an interview with SAE Vehicle Electrification, the companys Vice President Global Product Engineering, Power Solutions, Craig Rigby, said the company currently is in production with a nickel cobalt aluminum product for customers including BMW and Mercedes-Benz. Cells of that battery formulation come in cylindrical form, he noted. A new Li-ion formulation JCI has decided upon will come in prismatic form, and form factor was a consideration in selection of what formula to pursue. After studying alternatives at great length, Rigby has a strong voice in JCIs decision to go with nickel manganese cobalt. He said the decision involved many considerations beyond the various formulations precise performance characteristicsconstraints such as cost and imperatives such as manufacturability.
Rigby does have a lab coat, and sometimes enters the lab environment, but Im not an electrochemist (he has a masters in engineering management and bachelors degrees in naval architecture and marine engineering). I rely on my team of experts, he said in explaining the decision-making process. It was a tough decision, he continued, but if you do the work right it doesnt have to be an agonizing thing. If you do the work right, the data will tell you. It becomes very obvious. By the time you get to the meeting where youre going to pull the trigger, its almost a foregone conclusion because you look at data in front of you and you say, Yeah, you know what, this makes all the sense in the world. It wasnt like I sat there for hours tearing my hair out saying, What do we do, what do we do?
Raz Yerushalmi Senior Manager, Systems & Automotive Applications, Rational Software, IBM Peter Kirsch Product Manager for EB tresos, Elektrobit
Webcast attendees will be invited to interact with the experts during the programs live Q&A segment.
P121137
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Tech Report
ENERGY
Mark Little, Senior Vice President & Director of GE Global Research, predicts big advances in EV technologies and in the ability to distribute power to and from vehicles and the grid.
said Glen Stancil, Vice President at NRG Energy EV Services. However, significant changes will be required if EVs fulfill a secondary role: providing power that utility companies can use to help them meet peak demands. Vehicles can sell energy back to utilities at peak times, typically late afternoons on hot days, then recharge batteries later so the vehicles can be driven home from work. Vehicle makers note that to date, usage patterns have been largely for a few short runs per day, such as driving to and from work. Over 90% of the Leafs are parked at a given time, said Minoru Shinohara, Senior Vice President, Nissan Motor Co.
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He explained that the Leafs batteries have about 24 kWh capacity, which roughly matches the average home demands, which range from 20-30 kWh. However, utility companies must make many changes before its viable to use EV batteries as a power source. Smart-grid technologies must be installed, and consumer costs for energy must be priced at different rates depending on the time of day. The reality is that the smart grid is not very smart, Bly said. If we dont get it operating intelligently pretty soon, consumers will give up on the smart grid. We also need more time-of-day charging. Thats still a small percentage of the market. Panelists generally agreed that such changes are going to occur over the next few years. Vehicle batteries are making big advances, and smart-grid technologies are also moving swiftly. The cost of wind energy has gone from 20 cents per kWh to about 5 cents, which is competitive with conventional rates, said Mark Little, Senior Vice President & Director, GE Global Research. Solar has gone from 30-40 cents to 10-11 cents per kWh. That type of innovation will also occur in EVs. Along with these technical changes, panelists noted that the U.S. must standardize many of its grid technologies. There are more than 3000 utility companies in the U.S., and many of them use different technologies. That will hamper efforts to recharge vehicles during low-demand periods and make it difficult for vehicle owners to provide power to utility companies. We have a lot to do in grid energy management, Little said. We need improved software to manage energy distribution.
ENERGY
A technician at Nexeon, maker of advanced silicon anodes for Li-ion batteries, works with an experimental coater.
When you move into an all-electric vehicle, Ford CEO Alan Mulally recently told a Fortune magazine forum on green technology, the battery size moves up to around 23 kWh, [and] it weighs around 600 to 700 lb. Theyre around $12,000 to $15,000 [each] in a compact car the size of a $20,000+ gasoline-powered Focus. So you can see why the economics are what they are. Despite the highly anticipated arrival in 2011 of vehicles fully or partially powered by batteries, the numbers for the first full year of sales for the Chevrolet Volt range-extender and the Nissan Leaf EV full-electric have been weaker than expected. If car buyers didnt hesitate over limited range and recharging infrastructure, the cars high upfront
Terry Costlow
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Tech Report
he noted, but it cant cycle repeatedly and it has a long way to go.
Envia Systems high-energy-density Li-ion cells use cathode technology developed at Argonne National Laboratory. (Envia Systems)
costs certainly scared off many potential customers. Those high price tags are largely driven by the cost of the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery. Unfortunately, those costs are not likely to drop anytime soon, according to Kevin See, lead analyst for the electric vehicle service of Lux Research, an independent research and advisory firm that focuses on emerging technologies. The costs are too high and will remain so despite increasing economies of scale, he stated, which bodes ill for widespread adoption of EVs in the near future. We need innovations and new strategies to reduce the costs further, faster. While other promising avenues such as lithium-air, lithium-sulfur, and magnesium-based batteries may become available at some point, they all remain immature technologies. For the rest of the decade, plug-in vehicles fates will be tied to the cost of Li-ion batteries. Lithium-air is a major value proposition,
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Cell costs come down with scale but remain high without further innovation.
tiator. It accounts for the largest percentage of cell cost and is typically the limiting factor in cell design and cell capacity. Using their cost-barometer model, Lux researchers considered the effect on cost if an advanced Li-ion battery were to feature a voltage increase of 1 V (4.7 V overall) and a cell capacity rise of 40 MAh/g, which would require a future cathode capable of storing 200 MAh/g of electric charge. In this optimal case, the 2017 nominal pack cost drops from $477 to $384/kWh, a 19% reduction. The Lux report highlighted several cathode materials with higher capacity potential. Lithium-manganese-spinel is attractive for cost and safety but lags in energya fault that can be ameliorated by mixing it with high-energy-content materials such as nickelmanganese-cobalt-oxide (NMC) and lithiumnickel-oxide. The flexible NMC formulation provides tunable ratios of three elements for tailoring performance and cost. Lithium-ironSAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
phosphate (LFP) excels in safety characteristics but entails sacrifices in performance. Meanwhile, other next-generation materials promise higher energy and lower costs, according to the Lux report. Cathodes with both higher capacity and voltage could boost energy density and thus lower cost per kilowatthour. One possibility is lithium-iron-manganese-phosphate, which could retain the advantages of LFP while significantly raising energy content. An alternative is the lithium-rich layered-layered NMC cathode technology licensed from Argonne National Laboratory, which offers higher capacity and operating voltages. Issues with cycle life must be overcome before this material can be commercialized.
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Tech Report
Raw materials
SQM, FMC, Chemetall, Talison Lithium, Admiralty Resources
Component materials Cathode materials: Toda Kogyo, Umicore, Sumitomo Chemical, Nippon Denko, Nichia, Mitsubishi Chemical, 3M, BASF, Dow Chemical, Formosa Plastic Anode material: Hitachi Chemical, JFE Chemical, Kureha, Mitsubishi Chemical, 3M, Conoco Phillips Separator: Toray, Celgard, Asahi Kasei, Ube Chemical, Entek, SK Innovation, Sumitomo Chemical, Mitsubishi Chemical Electrolytes: Cheil, Mitsui Chemical, Ube Industries, Dow Chemical, Novolyte, Mitsubishi Chemical, Formosa Plastics, BASF
Cells
China BAK, E-One Moli, Dow Kokam, Boston-Power
End users Transportation: Ford, Chrysler, BMW, Hyundai Utility: ABB, American Electric Power, Xcel Energy, AES Stationary power: GE, China Sanke Electrical, Eaton, APC (Schneider Electric), Liebert (Emerson), Toshiba, Portable power: Black & Decker, Original Power, Milwaukee Tools, Makita, military
Panasonic/Sanyo (PEVE), NEC (AESC), GS Yuasa (Lithium Energy Japan and Blue Energy), LG Chem, SK Innovation, SB LiMotive, A123 Systems, Valence Technologies Toyota (PEVE), Nissan (AESC), Mitsubishi (Lithium Energy Japan), Honda (Blue Energy)
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Optimize everything
There are a lot of different strategies, See said, but some of the surest routes to cost reductions are: Improved performance at the cell and pack level More efficient use of materials Expanded window of usable energy Reductions in battery capacity fade. Batteries have to be oversized to ensure long-term function, as they suffer performance degradation over time, said See, who believes a potential cost savings of 20% to 30% can be realized by a reduction in oversizing. Battery management technology also impacts costs. A battery management system can improve a batterys performance with no improvement in the cell itselfespecially in regards to cycle life and defense against the effect of defective cellsby controlling smaller groups of cells and optimizing the usable SOC window of each group of cells using new software algorithms. See said that the industrys need for materials innovation to drastically cut costs has led to significant activity in the lithium-ion battery value chain, including capacity expansion, new entrants to the market, and partnerships. Suppliers and end users have to cooperate to grow the electric vehicle market further, he advised. Automakers are getting increasingly involved in battery design and even the materials, and theyll need to support and cooperate more and more with their suppliers.
ENERGY
J1772 enables a single vehicle inlet to be used for ac charging and for higher-rate dc charging. The first-generation J1772 plug fits into the upper part of the inlet, with the lower pins for dc charging left open. The new combo connector is similar to the first-generation J1772 plug but also incorporates pins to fit into the lower portion of the inlet.
SAE Internationals J1772 combo connector, which will allow for both slower ac charging and faster dc charging of plug-in vehicles using a single vehicle electrical inlet, got its first North American public demo after months of internal testing by automakers. The three major domestic automakers (Chrysler, Ford, General Motors) and the five major automakers from Germany (Audi,
Steven Ashley
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Tech Report
BMW, Daimler, Porsche, Volkswagen) will use the new connectoran evolution of the existing J1772 connectorto charge electrified vehicle models at the Electric Vehicle Symposium in Los Angeles. The rollout of actual production vehicles equipped with the new connector begins in CY2013. The EVS show demo reflects strong support among those automakers for J1772 over CHAdeMO (short for charge and move), the Japanese standard on which is based the connector currently used for dc fast charging on the Nissan Leaf and Mitsubishi i electric vehicles. The current-generation Chevrolet Volt is designed for the first-generation J1772 connector, which does not allow for dc fast charging. The two Japanese EV models are available with two vehicle electric inlets, one for CHAdeMO dc charging and one for J1772 ac charging. The Volt has a single J1772 inlet for ac charging only. The advantages to having a single vehicle inlet include mass savings, cost savings, and customer convenience, according to Britta Gross, GM Director, Infrastructure Planning. She said the purpose of the demo is, in part, to show that this is a collaborative effort. We [GM] learned a lot of lessons on the EV1, and we have vowed to make sure some of the hard lessons learned dont happen again. One lesson is that we cant go it alone on infrastructure, and on the standard for infrastructure. So we vowed on the [Chevrolet] Volt program to not proceed until the industry had consensed around charging infrastructure. We focused on ac level 1 and 2 charging [J1772] and got unanimous agreement throughout the industry on it. With dc, the in-
Gery Kissel, Chair of the SAE International J1772 Task Force, says the update to the standard should be completed by July or August. He is shown here holding an original J1772 connector at a conference in 2010. (Patrick Ponticel)
dustry got together and agreed to leverage whats been done on [J1772] to provide a small-package, ergonomically designed unit that leverages what we already had before. A revision to the J1772 standard that will accommodate the combo connector technology currently is out for ballot, according to Gery Kissel, Chair of the SAE International J1772 Task Force whose title at GM is Engineering Specialist, Global Codes and Standards Development. He said there is little reason to think it will not be approved by July or August. Kissel said the standard will allow for charging up to 500 V, with maximum current of 200 A, which could yield a charger up to 100 kW. He and Gross both say it is their hope that eventually the industry will coalesce around a single dc fast charge standard.
Patrick Ponticel
SAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
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SIMULATION
Schematic representation of a section across a Li-ion battery cell, with typical dimensions of each component.
Most models of lithium-ion batteries follow the one-dimensional analysis approach. The major drawback of this is that the porosity and so liquid-phase salt transport and solidphase electronic conductivity are not explicitly resolved and the diffusion of Li into and out of solid is modeled using representative spherical particles assuming perfect symmetry. These modeling assumptions limit the achievable accuracy; refinement of spatial computational grid and time steps cannot overcome the modeling error introduced by the above assumptions. Researchers at Battery Design LLC and CD-adapco set out on a new approach, one that would avoid the limitations of the standard approach by resolving the structure of the electrode and explicitly modeling the transport of lithium in the electrolyte and solid phases. The following factors motivated the researchers to go down this path. It is now possible to obtain exact geometry
of solid particles in electrodes. While the resolution of scanning devices currently is relatively poor for such microscopic structures, there is no doubt that within a few years an adequate resolution will be possible. This will allow for the building of CAD models of solid and fluid regions of battery cell electrodes. Commercial software allows creation of quality grids in arbitrarily complex geometries. Grid-generation methods based on tetrahedral elements have been available for a long time. These elements are not best suited for diffusion-dominated problems such as those in battery electrodes, requiring layered (prismatic) meshes along solid-liquid interfaces. However, over the past decade methods of generating polyhedral grid with prismatic layers along interfaces have been developed, allowing for an adequate resolution of complex geometry present in electrodes. Computing power is steadily growing. Computational grids made of hundreds of
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Tech Report
A completed mesh for cathode active material (the electrolyte has been removed for clarity).
millions of control volumes currently are used in some advanced niche applications, such as Formula One, but it will become commonplace in the near future. The method to allow a detailed modeling of porous electrodes and associated processes is by explicitly separating solid and fluid regions within electrodes and performing a three-dimensional discretization based on finite volume method. Used for this research were manufactured geometries that have similar porosity, tortuosity, and active-surface-area-to-volume ratio comparable to real electrode material in order to develop the basic models and computational procedure. Real geometries can then be introduced as they become available without the need to modify the solution method. Other research groups are pursuing similar approaches. The complex model was implemented within the finite volume framework of the computational continuum mechanic software STARCCM+. A sample application was undertaken, focused on a small region of a LiMn2O4 chemistry cell. The results were compared with an established 1-D model and favorable and realistic trends are shown within the 3-D model. Further studies will include the analysis of grid and time step dependence and the determination of minimum size of computational domain needed to obtain reliable solutions with minimum effort. Having shown the credibility compared to a 1-D model, this 3-D model will be further enhanced to include detailed analysis of effects at the SEI layer to account for possible Li-ion plating due to local conditions. As the understanding of other capacity-fade processes evolves within literature, these can be added to this base modeling framework. Attention will also now turn to improvements in the generation of representative models and the overall user process to enable industry to repeat and extend the reported work. In parallel to the generation of further idealized models (which will include binder, conducting aid, range of particle sizes and shapes, etc.), this code will also be used on data generated from scanning tomography of actual electrode samples, as soon as they become available with sufficient quality needed to generate computational models of the presented kind. Further effects that can be accounted for in the future include electrolyte flow, expansion and contraction of solid material during charging and discharging, edge effects, etc.
This article is based on SAE technical paper 2012-01-0663 by Robert Spotnitz of Battery Design LLC; and Boris Kaludercic, Samir Muzaferija, Milovan Peric, Gaetan Damblanc, and Steve Hartridge, CD-adapco.
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POWERTRAIN
the needle passage between the pole-shoes, the company explained. Reducing the air gap between the pole-shoes, the magnetic field increases, reducing the cogging effect and making it possible to add more wire turns. Marsilli boasts two main advantages gained with this motor-winding process: higher power density allows for the manufacture of a more powerful motor within the same size envelope; or, if the same power output is maintained, it is possible to reduce size and weightand, consequently, material costs as well. Lower wire stress during winding can also result in material-cost reduction, according to Marsilli, by allowing use of a less-expensive type of wire (thinner and less sophisticated insulation enamel). In addition, wire-length optimization reduces the copper cost; the magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and not to their length, and considering that all wires out of the lamination are useless for creating the magnetic field, the company noted. A new motor winding product line, the MWM (Motor Winding by Marsilli), is structured on two different series. One series is designed for a single-pole motor winding concept, to enable winding single stator poles and then allow for assembling and connecting. The second series is designed to manage the chained phase conceptto wind an entire stator using the open chain pole and then closing the stator upon completion of winding. For the single-pole MWM, known as the SX machine, the motor poles are wound singularly, then assembled on the lamination and electrically connected to create the stator. Suitable for complex winding designs (i.e., paired coils), the SX motor-winding machine
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Tech Report
features a wire-clamping gripper to keep the wire ends in position, a special programmable device to control the crossing of the wires, optional wire stripping, and allows easy product changeover. With the CX motor-winding machine for the chain-poles concept, the motor poles (already integrating into the lamination) are aligned one on side of the other on a tool, then the motor phases are wound around the poles, without cutting the wire between the poles. The pole stack is then closed to create the stator. Some of its main features include an interpolation winding method using torque motors, three programmable axes shuttle for precise winding layering (Z axis) and loading/ unloading operations, three programmable axes system for parking and cutting devices, wire parking clamps on the shuttle, movable holding fixtures to simplify loading/unloading operations, and an optional stator automatic closing unit. We have already applied these concepts in steering motor applications, starter-motor generators, torque motors in various automotive applications, stepper motors for gauges, etc., said Rajasekhara. Although there is currently no hybrid application in production, there is frenetic activity ongoing in developing the hybrid motor applications. Due to confidentiality reasons, we cannot divulge too many details about this ongoing development and co-design efforts with our customers. Is the technology suitable for heavier-duty commercial vehicles as well? In general, yes; however, it depends upon the sizes of motors to be considered, Rajasekhara told SAE Magazines. We continue to expand our product offerings to include larger wire sizes,
Marsilli claims two main advantages gained with open-pole motor winding: higher power density allowing for a more powerful motor within the same size envelope; or, if the same power output is maintained, a possible reduction in size and weight.
motor sizes, etc., so it would not be appropriate to limit the applications that we would consider. We can also work with motorcycle and off-road vehicle applications. He added that Marsilli is witnessing an explosion of the use of motors as energy-efficient replacements to power-hungry automotive solenoids, which typically perform simple on-off functions. We expect this trend to push us toward greater innovation within the automotive motor industry.
Ryan Gehm
SAE Vehicle Electrification evsae.com
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has rapidly evolved from a mere buzzword to a key element in every global OEMs productdevelopment plans. For the engineers charged with developing the technology solutions that will drive electrification, SAE International has created an exclusive new source of information. Its a new Vehicle Electrification Web portal at evsae.com created to be the go-to source for engineering professionals looking for the latest technical information on technology advances, product solutions, supplier news, and vehicle-development trends from the most plugged-in experts in the electrified-
ELECTRIFICATION
vehicle field. Youll also be able to find information on the latest SAE books, events, technical papers, standards, and trainingas well as content from an increasing number of SAE partners. The site is being updated and upgraded continually, so check it out and come back often. In addition, this SAE Vehicle Electrification digital magazine is part of a series devoted to the most significant hybrid and electric vehicles and the current and future technologies being developed for them and other vehicles. evsae.com is the new source of engineering connectivity. Bookmark it!
Whats on evsae.com
Electrifying interviews at SAE 2012 Congress
SAE Magazines editors conducted a number of video-interviews at the April 24-26 SAE 2012 World Congress in Detroit. Two of them were with representatives of companies with products related to the electric vehicle. Paul Heitmann, Manager of Utility Solutions, ECOtality, spoke about his companys Blink charging stations; the video can be viewed at right, or by visiting http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=uOF2JK3dL2c&feature=youtu.be. Ken Stewart, Vice President of Business Development at Protean Electric, spoke about his companys in-wheel motor technology. The video can be viewed at right, or by visiting http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49 2IVJBdRd4&feature=youtu.be.
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