9.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Formation of Energy Bands in Solids:
Energy

Conduction Band
Forbidden Energy Gap

3p2 3s2

Valence Band 2p6 2s

2

1s2

Ion core state

d Inter atomic spacing (r)

Metals:
Conduction Band

Partially filled Conduction Band

Valence Band

Semiconductors:
The fraction of electrons is

Conduction Band
Eg kB T
Forbidden Energy Gap

pe

Valence Band Eg-Si = 1.1 eV

1 eV

EgGe= 0.74 eV

Conduction Band Electrons, however heated, can not practically jump to conduction band from valence band due to a large energy gap. Therefore, conduction is not possible in insulators. Eg-Diamond = 7 eV

Forbidden Energy Gap 6 eV

Valence Band

Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductor:

Valence electrons Covalent Bond
Ge Ge Ge Ge

Broken Covalent Bond Free electron ( - )

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Hole ( + )

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

C.B
Eg

+ 0.74 eV V.B ni = pi Heat Energy

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge

Extrinsic or Impure Semiconductor:

N - Type Semiconductors:

Ge

Ge

Ge

C.B
0.045 eV

Ge As Ge

Eg = 0.74 eV

V.B Donor level n p = ni pi = ni2

Ge

Ge

Ge

When a semiconductor of Group IV (tetra valent) such as Si or Ge is doped with a penta valent impurity (Group V elements such as P, As or Sb), N type semiconductor is formed. When germanium (Ge) is doped with arsenic (As), the four valence electrons of As form covalent bonds with four Ge atoms and the fifth electron of As atom is loosely bound.

P - Type Semiconductors:

Ge

Ge

Ge

C.B

Ge

In

Ge

Eg = 0.74 eV

V.B
0.05 eV
Ge Ge

Ge

Acceptor level n p = ni pi = ni2

When a semiconductor of Group IV (tetra valent) such as Si or Ge is doped with a tri valent impurity (Group III elements such as In, B or Ga), P type semiconductor is formed. When germanium (Ge) is doped with indium (In), the three valence electrons of In form three covalent bonds with three Ge atoms. The vacancy that exists with the fourth covalent bond with fourth Ge atom constitutes a hole.

Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductors:

I = Ie + Ih Ie = neeAve So, Ih = nheAvh Ih Ie

I = neeAve + nheAvh I

If the applied electric field is small, then semiconductor obeys Ohms law. V R = neeAve + nheAvh = eA (neve + nhvh) Or VA l Note: = eA (neve + nhvh) since R = l A

E = e (neve + nhvh)

since E =

V l

Mobility () is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field. 1 = e (nee + nhh)

Or = e (nee + nhh) The electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility. The resistivity / conductivity depends not only on the electron and hole densities but also on their mobilities. The mobility depends relatively weakly on temperature.

PN Junction Diode:
P N

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

When a PN junction is formed, the P region has mobile holes (+) and immobile negatively charged ions. N region has mobile electrons (-) and immobile positively charged ions.

Mobile Hole (Majority Carrier)

Immobile Negative Impurity Ion Mobile Electron (Majority Carrier)

+ Immobile Positive Impurity

Ion The whole arrangement is electrically neutral. For simplicity, the minority charge carriers are not shown in the figure.

PN Junction Diode immediately after it is formed :

P V N

Fr

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ E + + Fr +

Depletion region

Forward Bias:
Ih P N Ie

+ +

+ +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+E +

Depletion region E

Reverse Bias:
Ih P V N Ie

+ +E +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

Depletion region E

Diode Characteristics: Forward Bias:

D

If

(mA)
Linear Region

VB + V + mA Vr (Volt) 0 Vk Vf (Volt)

Vk Knee Voltage VB Breakdown Voltage

Reverse Bias:
D Ir (A) Resistance of a Diode: + V + A

Static or DC Resistance Rd.c = V / I Dynamic or AC Resistance Ra.c = V / I

PN Junction Diode as a Half Wave Rectifier:

The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification. The device used for rectification is called rectifier. The PN junction diode offers low resistance in forward bias and high resistance in reverse bias.

+ D RL

D RL

No output

+ D RL

PN Junction Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier:

When the diode rectifies whole of the AC wave, it is called full wave rectifier. During the positive half cycle of the input ac signal, the diode D1 conducts and current is through BA. During the negative half cycle, the diode D2 conducts and current is through BA.

+ D1 RL D2

D1 RL D2

+ D1 RL D2

Junction Transistor:
Transistor is a combination of two words transfer and resistor which means that transfer of resistance takes place from input to output section. N P N Emitter N P Base

Collector

Emitter

Base Collector Emitter

P N Base

Collector EB C

PNP Transistor Characteristics in Common Base Configuration:

+ Ie Eeb + mA

P B N

P C

+ mA Ic Ecb Vcb +

Veb

Ib

Vcb=-20 V

Vcb=-10 V

Ie (mA)

Vcb=0 V

Ic (mA) Ie = 20 mA Ie = 10 mA Ie = 0 mA

Veb (Volt)

Vcb (Volt)

Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics

PNP Transistor Characteristics in Common Emitter Configuration:

C + Ib Ebe Vbe + Vcb= 0 V Vcb= 0.1 V Vcb= 0.2 V A N B P E Ie Vce + + P mA Ic Ece

Ib (A)

Ic (mA)

Ib = -300 A Ib = -200 A Ib = -100 A

Vbe (Volt)

Vce (Volt) Output Characteristics

Input Characteristics

NPN Transistor as Common Base Amplifier:

Ie E

N P N

Ic C

+Vcb RL IcRL Vcb

Input Signal Eeb

Ib

Ecb

-Vcb Output Amplified Signal Input section is forward biased and output section is reverse biased with biasing batteries Eeb and Ecb. The currents Ie, Ib and Ic flow in the directions shown such that Ie = Ib + Ic .(1) IcRL is the potential drop across the load resistor RL. By Kirchhoffs rule, Vcb = Ecb Ic RL .(2)

PNP Transistor as Common Base Amplifier:

Ie

P N P

Ic E C

+Vcb RL Vcb IcRL

Input Signal Eeb

Ib

Ecb -Vcb Output Amplified Signal

Input section is forward biased and output section is reverse biased with biasing batteries Eeb and Ecb. The currents Ie, Ib and Ic flow in the directions shown such that Ie = Ib + Ic .(1) IcRL is the potential drop across the load resistor RL. By Kirchhoffs rule, Vcb = Ecb Ic RL .(2)

Gains in Common Base Amplifier:

Current Amplification Factor or Current Gain: (i) DC current gain: It is the ratio of the collector current (Ic) to the current (Ie) at constant collector voltage. Ic dc =

emitter

Vcb (ii) AC current gain: It is the ratio of change in collector current (Ic) to the change in emitter current (Ie) at constant collector voltage. Ic ac = Ie V cb 2) AC voltage gain: It is the ratio of change in output voltage (collector voltage Vcb) to the change in input voltage (applied signal voltage Vi). Vcb Ic x Ro or AV-ac = or AV-ac = ac x Resistance Gain AV-ac = Vi Ie x Ri 3) AC power gain: It is the ratio of change in output power to the change in input power. Po AP-ac = Pi or AP-ac = Vcb x Ic Vi x Ie or AP-ac = ac2 x Resistance Gain

Ie

NPN Transistor as Common Emitter Amplifier:

C
N

Ic

+Vce

Ib B

P N

E Vce RL IcRL

Input Signal Ebe Ie Ece -Vce Output Amplified Signal

Input section is forward biased and output section is reverse biased with biasing batteries Ebe and Ece. The currents Ie, Ib and Ic flow in the directions shown such that Ie = Ib + Ic .(1) IcRL is the potential drop across the load resistor RL. By Kirchhoffs rule, Vce = Ece Ic RL .(2)

PNP Transistor as Common Emitter Amplifier:

C
P

Ic

+Vce

Ib B

N P

E Vce RL IcRL

Input Signal Ebe Ie Ece -Vce Output Amplified Signal

Input section is forward biased and output section is reverse biased with biasing batteries Ebe and Ece. The currents Ie, Ib and Ic flow in the directions shown such that Ie = Ib + Ic .(1) IcRL is the potential drop across the load resistor RL. By Kirchhoffs rule, Vce = Ece Ic RL .(2)

Gains in Common Emitter Amplifier:

1) Current Amplification Factor or Current Gain: (i) DC current gain: It is the ratio of the collector current (Ic) to the base current (Ib) at constant collector voltage. Ic dc = Ib V ce (ii) AC current gain: It is the ratio of change in collector current (Ic) to the change in base current (Ib) at constant collector voltage. Ic ac = Ib V ce 2) AC voltage gain: It is the ratio of change in output voltage (collector voltage Vce) to the change in input voltage (applied signal voltage Vi). Vce Ic x Ro or AV-ac = or AV-ac = ac x Resistance Gain AV-ac = Vi Ib x Ri Also AV = gm RL 3) AC power gain: It is the ratio of change in output power to the change in input power. Po AP-ac = Pi or AP-ac = Vce x Ic Vi x Ib or AP-ac = ac2 x Resistance Gain

4) Transconductance: It is the ratio of the small change in collector current (Ic) to the corresponding change in the input voltage (base voltage (Vb) at constant collector voltage. gm = Ic Vb Vce or gm = ac Ri

Relation between and :

Ie = Ib + Ic Dividing the equation by Ic, we get Ie Ic But = 1 = = Ib Ic Ic Ie 1 and = Ic Ib + 1 or = 1 and = 1+ +1

Transistor as an Oscillator: (PNP)

L Ic

N P

C
P

Saturation current

I I0 0

Ib B

E Ie

Ece

t Saturation current Output RF Signal

Ebe

An oscillator is a device which can produce undamped electromagnetic oscillations of desired frequency and amplitude. It is a device which delivers a.c. output waveform of desired frequency from d.c. power even without input signal excitation. Tank circuit containing an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in parallel can oscillate the energy given to it between electrostatic and magnetic energies. However, the oscillations die away since the amplitude decreases rapidly due to inherent electrical resistance in the circuit.

f= I0 I 0

1 2 LC I0 I 0 t Undamped Oscillations

t Damped Oscillations

Analogue signal
A continuous signal value which at any instant lies within the range of a maximum and a minimum value. V (5 V) 0 t (-5 V) V = V0 sin t (5 V) (0 V) 0

Digital signal A discontinuous signal value which appears in steps in predetermined levels rather than having the continuous change. V 1 01 01 01 01 t

Digital Circuit:
An electrical or electronic circuit which operates only in two states (binary mode) namely ON and OFF is called a Digital Circuit. In digital system, high value of voltage such as +10 V or +5 V is represented by ON state or 1 (state) whereas low value of voltage such as 0 V or -5V or -10 V is represented by OFF state or 0 (state).

Logic Gates:
The digital circuit that can be analysed with the help of Boolean Algebra is called logic gate or logic circuit. A logic gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. There are 3 fundamental logic gates namely OR gate, AND gate and NOT gate. Truth Table: The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be represented in a table which contains all possible inputs and their corresponding outputs is called a truth table. If there are n inputs in any logic gate, then there will be n2 possible input combinations. 0 and 1 inputs are taken in the order of ascending binary numbers for easy understanding and analysis.

Digital OR Gate:
A Y + A D1 5V B D2 + 5V E E E E RL 0 1 1 1

D2

Truth Table
A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y=A+B

Digital AND Gate:

A

B
Truth Table
A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y=A.B 0 0 0 1

A D1 + 5V
B

Y D2 RL + 5V

+ 5V E E E

Digital NOT Gate:

A
Truth Table

+ 5V RL E C

N

A 0 1

Y=A 1 0

Rb

+ 5V E

NOR Gate:

A B
Symbol

A+B A B Truth Table

A B A+B

Y = (A + B)

Y = (A + B)

Y = (A + B)

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

NAND Gate:

A B A B

A.B

Y = (A . B)

Truth Table A B A. B Y = (A . B)

Y = (A . B)

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

NOR Gate as a Building Block:

OR Gate:

A B
AND Gate:

(A + B) A

Y=A+B

B
NOT Gate:

Y=A.B

B A

Y = A

NAND Gate as a Building Block:

OR Gate:

B
AND Gate:

Y=A+B

A B

(A . B)

Y=A.B

NOT Gate:

Y = A

XOR Gate:
A A B A B B
A B A B AB AB Y = AB + AB =A B

AB

Y = AB + AB =A B

AB

A B Y=A
Symbol

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

1 1 0 0

1 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0