Data communication(10 MARKS) Data communication concepts-Packet switching & Circuit Switching; Each packet is sent with a header

ader address. This tells it where its final destination is, so it knows where to go. The header address also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination computer so that the packets are put back into the correct order. One packet also contains details of how many packets should be arriving so that the recipient computer knows if one packet has failed to turn up. If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a message back to the computer which originally sent the data, asking for the missing packet to be resent. Packet Switching Message is broken up into segments (packets). Each packet carries the identification of the intended recipient, data used to assist in data correction and the position of the packet in the sequence. Each packet is treated individually by the switching centre and may be sent to the destination by a totally different route to all the others. Advantages: Security Bandwidth used to full potential Devices of different speeds can communicate Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal) Availability do not have to wait for a direct connection to become available During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network might stop working, e-mails and texts can still be sent via packet switching Disadvantages Under heavy use there can be a delay Data packets can get lost or become corrupted Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer Not so good for some types data streams e.g real-time video streams can lose frames due to the way packets arrive out of sequence. Circuit Switching Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel. This channel remained open and in use throughout the whole call and could not be used by any other data or phone calls, In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches before a connection is established. During a call, no other network traffic can use those switches. The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the entire data transfer and the entire message follows the same path. Circuit switching can be analogue or digital With the expanded use of the Internet for voice and video, analysts predict a gradual shift away from circuitswitched networks.

A circuit-switched network is excellent for data that needs a constant link from end-to-end. For example realtime video. Advantages: Circuit is dedicated to the call no interference, no sharing Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call Guaranteed Quality of Service Disadvantages: Inefficient the equipment may be unused for a lot of the call, if no data is being sent, the dedicated line still remains open Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable. It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic.

It is easier to double the capacity of a packet switched network than a circuit network a circuit network is heavily dependent on the number of channel available It is cheaper to expand a packet switching system. Circuit-switched technologies, which take four times as long to double their performance/cost, force ISPs to buy that many more boxes to keep up. This is why everyone is looking for ways to get Internet traffic off the telephone network. The alternative of building up the telephone network to satisfy the demand growth is economically out of the question

Layered Model;

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. Vendor specific protocols close off communication between unrelated systems. The purpose of the OSI model is to open communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust an interoperable. The open systems interconnection model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows for communication across all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a segment of process of moving information across a network. Understanding the fundamentals of the OSI model provides a solid basis for exploration of data communications.

APPLICATION LAYER

PRESENTATION LAYER SESSION LAYER TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER DATA LINK LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER

Layered Architecture

The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers: Layer 1: Layer 3: Layer 5: Layer 7: Physical layer Network Layer Session Layer Application Layer
Layer 2: Data Link Layer

Layer 4: Layer 6:

Transport Layer Presentation Layer

The layers involved in the message transfer from A to B can be seen in the figure

Device A

intermediate node

intermdedate node

Device B

LAYER 7

Peer to peer protocol layer7

LAYER7

Peer to peer protocol layer6 LAYER6 Peer to peer protocol layer5 LAYER6

LAYER5

LAYER3 Peer to peer protocol layer 4

LAYER3

LAYER5

LAYER4

LAYER2

LAYER2

LAYER4

LAYER3 LAYER1 LAYER1

LAYER3

As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model. In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of transmitting data down to its most fundamental elements. They identified which networking functions had related uses and collected those functions into discrete groups that became the layers. Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible. The OSI model allows complete transparency between otherwise incompatible systems. The layers of this model can be remembered with the mnemonic Please Do Not Touch Steves Pet Alligator.

Peer to Peer Processes Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. between machines, layer n on one machine communicates with layer n on another machine. This communication is governed by an agreed upon series of rules and conventions called protocols. The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer to per processes. Communication between machines is therefore peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.

At the physical layer, communications is direct: Machine A sends a stream of bits to machine B. at the higher layers, however, communication must move down through the layers on machine A, over to machine B, and then back through the layers. Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are added to the message at layers 6,5,4,3 and 2. A trailer is added at layer2.

At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transferred to the receiving machine. At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant for it. For example, layer 2removed the data meant for it, then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3 removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.

Interfaces between Layers The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending machine and back up through the layers of the receiving machine is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it. Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network. As long as a layer still provides the expected services to the layer above it, the specific implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without requiring changes to the surrounding layers.

Organization of the Layers The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Network support Layers: Physical layer Data link layer Network layer They deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another, such as electrical specification, physical connections, physical addressing and transport timing and reliability. User support Layers Session Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer

They allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. The transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.
The figure gives the overall view of the OSI layer concept. L stands for the Layer. The process starts out at layer 7 then moves from layer to layer in descending order sequentially. At each layer (except at layers 7 and 1), a header is added to the data unit. At layer 2, a trailer is added as well. When the formatted data unit passes through the physical layer, it is changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.

Device A

Device B

LAYER 7 DATA

LAYER 7 DATA

LAYER6 DATA

H6

LAYER6 DATA

H6

LAYER5 DATA

H5

LAYER5 DATA

H5

LAYER4 DATA

H4

LAYER4 DATA

H4

LAYER3 DATA

H3

LAYER3 DATA

H3

01111110101010101111110

On reaching the destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and is transformed back into digital form. The data units then move back up through the OSI layers. As each block of data reaches the next higher layer, the headers and trailers attached to it at the corresponding sending layer are removed, and appropriate actions are taken at that layer. By the time the message reaches application layer, it is again in a form appropriate to the application and is made available to the recipient.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LAYERS Physical Layer This layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with Mechanical and electrical specifications of the primary connections such as cables and connectors

 Signaling options that physically link two nodes on a network. The first layer receives a data unit from the second layer and puts it into a format capable of being carried by a communications link. It oversees the changing of a bit stream into electromagnetic signals, and their transmission onto and across a medium. To accomplish this task, the following points are to be considered:

Line configuration: How can two or more devices be linked physically? Are transmission lines to be shared or limited to use between two devices? Is the line available or not? Data transmission mode: it does transmission flow one-way or both ways between two connected devices? Or does it alternate? Topology: how are network devices arranged? Do they pass data directly to each other or through an intermediary? And by what paths? Signals: What types of signals are useful for transmitting information? Encoding: how are bit (0s and 1s) to be represented by available signaling systems? How are data represented by signals? Interface: what information must be shared between two closely linked devices to enable and facilitate communication? What is the most efficient way to communicate that information? Medium: what is the physical environment for the transmission of data?

Data Link Layer The data link layer is responsible for delivering data units from one station to the next without errors. It accepts a data unit from the third layer and adds meaningful bits to the beginning and end that contain addresses and other control information. A data unit with these additional informations is called a frame.

To get to its ultimate destination, a transmission may have to be passed along by a number of intermediate stations, much as a letter from New Delhi to Thane may first go to Mumbai before finally arriving at Thane. Data link frame headers and trailers contain the information necessary to move a data unit from one of these stations to the next.

In addition, the data link layer is responsible for flow control and error detection. Protocols in this layer regulate the right of device to transit; how to keep transmissions from overwhelming the receiver; and how to ensure that errors introduced during transmission are corrected. To this end, headers and trailers also carry information about synchronization, sequencing and whether or not the last frame arrived intact. Headers and trailers at this level are added by the sending node, then checked and interpreted by the receiving node. Once a receiving node accepts a frame, it strips off the header and trailer and passes the examining data unit on to the network layer.

The following are the responsibilities of the data link layer. Node-to-Node delivery: the data link layer is responsible for node-to-node delivery. Addressing: headers and trailers added at this layer include the physical addresses of the most recent node and the next intended node. Access control: when two or more devices are connected to the same link, the data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the line at a given time. Flow control: to avoid overwhelming the receiver, the data link layer regulates the amount of data that can be transmitted at one time. It adds identifying numbers to enable the receiving node to control the ordering of the frames. Error handling: data link layer protocols provide for data recovery by having the entire frame retransmitted. Synchronization: headers contain bits to alert the receiving station that a frame is arriving. In addition, these bits provide a pattern to allow the receiver to synchronize its timing to that of the transmission. Trailers contain bits for error control and also bits that indicate the frame has ended, and that anything to follow is either a new frame or an idle channel.

Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packet across multiple network links. Whereas the data link layer oversees station-to-station delivery (node to node), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination successfully and efficiently.

To make such end-to-end delivery possible, the network layer provides two related services: switching and routing. Switching refers to temporary connections between physical links, resulting in longer links for network transmission. A telephone conversation is an example of a switched connection; two lines are temporarily joined into a single dedicated link for the duration of the conversation. In this case the same route to the destination sends each packet. Routing means selecting the best path for sending a packet from one point to another when more than one path is available. In this case, each packet may take a different route to the destination, where the packets are collected and reassembled into the original order. Routing considerations include speed, cost and the ability to change pathways in midtransmission. Routing and switching require the addition of a header that includes, among other information, the source and destination addresses of the packet. These addresses are different from the physical (node) addresses included in the data link header. Data link addresses are of the current and next node only. They change as a frame moves from one node to the next. Network layer addresses are those of the original source and the final destination. They do not change during transmission and are often called the logical addresses.

The specific responsibilities of this layer are: Source to destination delivery: Moving a packet (best effort) from its point of origin to its intended destination across multiple network links. Logical addressing: inclusion of the source and destination addresses in the header. Routing: deciding which of multiple paths a packet should take. Address transformation: interpreting logical addresses to find their physical equivalents. Multiplexing: using a single physical line to carry data between many devices at the same time. The following example may be considered for better understanding. It is required to send data from a node with network address A and physical address 45, located on one local area network, to a node with a network address D and physical address 60, located on another local area network. Because the two devices are located on different networks, we cannot use link addresses only; the link addresses have only local jurisdiction. What we need here are universal addresses that can pass thorough the boundaries of local area networks. The network addresses have this characteristic. The packet at the network layer contains the logical addresses, which remain the same from the original source to the final destination. They will not change when we go from network to network. However, the physical addresses will change

when the picket moves from one network to another. The box with R is an internetworking device called router. A B

T2 data A G 45 20

23
Ring

45

T2 data A G 99 C 33 20 R

D 45

T2 data A P 66 60

99

E71

F 33

66

H 77

60

Transport Layer The transport layer is responsible for source to destination (end to end) delivery of the entire message. Whereas the network layer oversees end-to-end delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order; overseeing both errors control and flow control at the source to destination level. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason, source to destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific application on one computer to a specific application on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service point address (also called a port address or socket address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct application on that computer. The transport layer header also contains sequence, or segmentation, numbers. As the transport layer receives the message to be sent from the session layer, it divides it into transmittable segments, indicating the in the header the sequence of the segments so that they can be reassembled upon receipt at the destination.

For added security, the transport layer may create a connection between the two end ports. A connection is a single logical path between the source and destination that is associated with all packets in a message. Creating a connection involves three steps: Connection establishment Data transfer Connection release By confining transmission of all packets to a single pathway, the transport layer has more control over sequencing, flow and error detection and correction.

The specific responsibilities of this layer are End to end message delivery: overseeing the transmission and arrival of the packets of a message at the destination point. Service point addressing: Guaranteeing delivery of a message to the appropriate application on a computer running multiple applications. Segmentation and reassembly: dividing a message into transmittable segments, and marking each segment with a sequence number. The numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly at the destination and to identify and replace packets lost in transmission. Connection control: deciding whether or not to send all packets by a single path. Consider the following example where data coming from the upper layers have service pint addresses j and k. since the data size is larger than the network layer can handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet retaining the service point addresses. Then in the network layer, network addresses c and d are added to the packets respectively. The packets may travel on different paths and arrive at the destination either in order or out of order. The two packets are delivered to the destination transport layer, which is responsible for removing the network layer headers and combining the two pieces of data for delivery to the upper layers.

Data

Data

Data 2 J K A P Data 1 J K A P Transport layer T2 data 2 J K A P H2

Data 1 J Transport layer K A P Data 2 J K A P

T2 data 1 J K A P H2 T2 data 2 J K A P H2

T2 data 1 J J K A P H2 Network layer Physical link

Data link layer

Session Layer: The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction between communicating devices. It also ensures that each session closes appropriately rather than shutting down abruptly and leaving the user hanging. For example, a user wants to transfer a file of 200 pages. What happens if the transfer is interrupted after only 52 pages? When the problem is removed and the connection can be made again, should the session be canceled and started all over from page 1? Or should the large session be divided into sub sessions so that a problem after page 52 results in only the last two pages being resent when the session is restored. These issues are the concerns of the session layer.

The session layer validates and establishes connections between users. The data unit at this layer may carry the credentials of the host seeking the connection, including password and login verification. This is essential whenever a system allows remote access to files. The session layer also controls the exchange of data: whether the exchange occurs in both directions simultaneously or only one direction at a time. If one-way at a time, how should turns be taken?

Dividing the session into sub sessions using checkpoints inserted into the stream creates reliability at the session layer. Checkpoints allow a session to backtrack a certain distance without completely starting over when problems occur. Depending on the requirements of the specific transmission, checkpoints can be either extremely important or ignored altogether.

The header of this layer includes control information such as the type of the data unit being sent and synchronization point information.

The specific responsibilities of the session layer are Session management: Dividing a session into sub session by the introduction of checkpoints and separating long messages into shorter units, called dialog units appropriate for transmission. Synchronization: Deciding in what order to pass the dialog units to the transport layer and where in the transmission to require confirmation from the receiver. Dialog control: Deciding who sends and when. Graceful close: Ensuring that the exchange has been completed appropriately before the session closes.

Presentation Layer The presentation layer ensures interoperability among communicating devices. Functions at this layer make it possible for two computers to communicate even if their internal representations of data differ. It provides the necessary translation of different control codes, character sets, and graphics characters and so on to allow both devices to understand the same transmission the same way. The presentation layer is also responsible for the encryption and decryption of data for security purposes and for the compression and expansion of data when necessary for transmission efficiency. Headers added at this layer include information on the type and parameters of the transmission and the length of transmission. The figure shows the relation ship between the presentation layer, application layer and the session layers.

From application layer

to application layer

L7 data

L7 data

presentation layer Encoded, encrypted and compressed data

H6

Presentation layer Encoded, encrypted and compressed data

H6

L6 data

L6 data

to session layer

from session layer

The responsibilities of this layer are Translation: Changing the format of a message from that used by the sender into one mutually acceptable for transmission. The, at the destination, changing that format into the one understood by the receiver. Encryption: Encryption and decryption of data for security purposes. Compression: Compressing and decompressing data to make transmission more efficient. Security: Validating passwords and login codes. Application Layer The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file transfers, shared database management and other types of distributed information services. The relationship of application layer to the user and the presentation layer is shown in the figure. The information services mentioned in the figure are

X.400 message handling services X. 500 directory services FATM file transfer and access management

Application Layer X.500 x FATM

Application Layer X.500 x FATM

L7 data

X.400

L7 data

X.400

The responsibilities of this layer are Network virtual terminal: A soft ware version of a physical terminal. A virtual terminal allows the user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The computer talks to the software terminal, which in turn talks to the host and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on. File access, transfer and management: Allows the user at a remote computer to access files in another host; to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer; and to manage or control files in a remote computer at that computer. Mail services: provides the basis for electronic mail forwarding and storage.

Directory services: Provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various objects and services.

Physical layer - Physical layer Interfaces and standards-V35, V24, G703, HSSI etc, ; Datalink Layer -Datalink Layer protocol, DLC, HDLC, PPP, LAN & Ethernet Technologies; Network Layer Protocols- IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP & IGMP; IP Addressing; Transport Layer Protocols- Connection oriented and connection less protocol, TCP, UDP; routing Protocols-RIP, OSPF, BGP; Internet Applications-HTTP, DNS ,Telnet, FTP, SMTP etc; Subscriber access Mechanisms-Modem Theory, HDSL Modems, Leased Line and Dialup Access etc. Broadband Access technologies-xDSLTechnilogies, DSLAM & ADSL Modems, BRAS,Tier-I & Tier-II switch, DMT Modulation technique,PPPoE WIFI AND WIMAX Computer Fundamentals (10 MARKS) i) Fundamentals of Personal Computers use of Windows Operating System & Introduction to software packages like MS Word, MS Excel and MS Power Point. Use of Internet for office work like e-mail, web browsing etc. The features of Linux Operating System, Linux file system, Basic and Advanced Commands, Graphical User Interface (KDE & GNOME), Open Office. ii) WEB Technologies: Creation of Static Web Page, which includes the designing, and developing of Static Web pages using HTML coding and FrontPage. iii) Networking: Internet Protocols, Network Components and Architecture, IP Addressing and Sub-netting, Network Operating System, Active Directory, DHCP, DNS, Client configuration. iv)RDBMS, RDBMS Concepts SQL ,SQL * ,PL/SQL v) BSNLSoftware Application: Familiarization with various departmental applications like DOTSOFT, BRMS, HR package etc.