Gender Differences in Economic Well-Being Among the Elderly of Java Author(s): Laura Rudkin Reviewed work(s): Source: Demography,

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Demography, Vol. 30, No. 2, May 1993

in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being AmongtheElderly Java* of

Laura Rudkin
Carolina Population Center of University NorthCarolina CB#8120, University Square Chapel Hill, NC 27516-3997
Withpopulations aging rapidlyin manydeveloping nations,issues of economic are a dependency amongtheelderly of increasing importance. Usingdatafrom 1986 I of on differences economic in survey theelderly Java,Indonesia, describe gender and identify characteristics well-being associatedwitheconomicdisadvantage. At and boththeindividual thehousehold level,olderwomenhave fewer resources than of income remittances), and oldermen.Evenwithin women categories support (work have lowerlevels of well-being. Genderdifferences household-level in economic in are to well-being due primarily differences household structure in levels of and skills. Gender differences individualreceipts(from all sources) are more in but more with reference gender to differences complicated, can be understood clearly in skillslevels(literacy, language, skills),current job workstatus authority, and and domestic authority.

Withdeclinesin fertility mortality, populations manydeveloping and the of countries in is have begunto age. This trend especiallyevident partsof east and southeast Asia; are increased attention theimplications population to of researchers paying agingandissues related individual to agingin theseregions.The pace of population agingin manyAsian will be rapid,though at thelevel of agingin developed not nations. example, For nations ratios(number persons and olderper 100 persons15 to 64) are of 65 old age dependency to such as China, Japan, expected roughly double between1985 and 2025 in countries Indonesia, Malaysia,andThailand (Concepcion 1987). The swift pace of theagingprocess of moreclearlywhichcharacteristics associated are the underscores importance learning in and with economic dependence disadvantage old age. In Nations is the Gender one obviousfactor. fact, United (1988) has calledforfurther and of and of ariseas . study the"nature magnitude theeconomic socialimbalances . . that and a resultof rapidchangesin age distribution the impactof alternative policies and whichaim at minimizing differentialwell-being . . the in for . support systems theelderly between sexes" (p. 33). the
* This paperis based on research funded theMacArthur Foundation the of by through Center International and of Research Princeton at of was Research theOffice Population University. Preparation thisdraft funded a by at Institute Aging on of National Carolina postdoctoral fellowship theCarolina Population Center, University North Sanders and LindaMartin, Tom Espenshade, reviewers at ChapelHill. AnnePebley, Korenman, twoanonymous in of comments. acknowledge cooperation theBiro PusatStatistik providing withthe I the me provided helpful data. Association America of ?D Copyright 1993 Population

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in of that Studiesconducted a variety cultural settings suggest oldermenconsistently have moreeconomicresources thanolderwomen.The generalargument thatafter is a lifetime economicdisadvantage, of womenare leftdependent theirspousesor adult on for children material support. (See, forexample,Ellickson1988; Hess 1985; Simmons [1945] 1970; UnitedNations 1985a.) Otherresearchers, however,have suggested that is women'sposition relative adultchildren notone of dependence one of authority. to but that women as receive material benefits from Theyargue age, they alliances with their adult and thatfathers tendnot to inspirethe same level of filialloyalty.(See, for children of example,Bart 1969; Brown 1982; Flinn 1985; Harrell 1981.) Proponents the two olderwomen than oldermen,butthey do perspectives agreethat relymoreon family differ thatsituation on whether Differences in places women at an economicdisadvantage. choices of reference researchers' groups, culturesof interest, theoretical underlying to and perspectives, research methodologies be contributing disparate may findings. in and Genderdifferences some basic demographic social characteristics probably in in to differences material resources old age. Because womentendto contribute gender than of showthat women live longer men,sex ratios olderpopulations outnumber generally tends to increasewith age. Because of the gendergap in life men; this difference menolderthanthemselves, expectancy, coupledwiththefactthatwomenusuallymarry later and either aloneor with mostwomen spendtheir yearswidowed living adultchildren. that Martin the For example, of (1988) reports in Asiannations proportion elderly and (65 who are widowed aboutone-half two-thirds, to whereas fewer older)females rangesfrom malesarewidowed. Thesegender than of in differences lifeexpectancy, one-quarter elderly and marital in differences economic status, living arrangements helpto explaingender may in in Gender differences availableroles and opportunities, bothyounger well-being. and the availableto oldermen olderadulthood, mayinfluence level of material also resources and women. a I consider these of on issuesusingdatafrom 1986survey theelderly Java,Indonesia. in and I describe differences individual household economic and gender well-being identify to differences. factors contributingtheobserved

THE RESEARCH QUESTION

is related economic to in Broadly, research my question this:How is gender well-being a addresses seriesof questions. old age? The actualanalysis of differences each indicator economic on Whatare thesize and direction gender of resources thanwomen?) well-being? menhavecontrol (Do overor access to morematerial of havedemographic Do thepopulations oldermenandwomen characteristics help that morelikely be living to aloneandthusto to explaintheobserved differences? women (Are have access to fewer material resources?) levels of skillsand thusdifferent Do oldermenand womenhave different levels of and thushave access to abilityto secureeconomicresources? (Are more men literate better-paying jobs?) in Do genderdifferences available roles and opportunities influence observed the in to and differences economic to gender well-being? menmorelikely be working thus (Are havehigher individual incomes?) I analyze both individualand householdmeasuresof economicwell-being. The resources individual-level indicator overwhichtheindividual represents maybe presumed The household-level variables the broader to have control. measure respondent's access to resources.

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THE CASE OF JAVA

is archipelago, home to morethan60% of the Java,one islandin the Indonesian context and an it For population. severalreasons, provides interesting appropriate nation's forthisstudy. of have declinedin recentyears and the population and First,fertility mortality that Nations (1985b,p. 150) projects theproportion has to Indonesia begun age. The United 5.4% in 1980 to 7.5% in 2000 to age population 60 and olderwillrisefrom of Indonesia's quadruple to (60+ ) is projected nearly 12.7% in 2025. The size of theolderpopulation ratiois Nations1985b,p. 144). The old-agedependency between 1980 and 2025 (United 4.6 age per from olderpersons 100 persons 15 to 64 in 1980to 6.6 in to projected increase 1990 to 8.0 in 2005 (Nam, Dasvarma,and Rahardjo1991). than form Javais nuclear, olderwomenareless likely on but Second,theidealfamily form is the Although modalfamily household. oldermento be livingin a nuclear-family can of structure quite fluid,and a variety livingarrangements be is household nuclear, and but is universal, divorceis common.Women(bothdivorced found.Marriage nearly moreslowlyand at a lowerratethanmen;thuswomen,at any widowed)tendto remarry to related family in family. (For discussions to adultage, are less likely be living a nuclear on structure Java,see Evans 1985; Geertz1961; Jay1969; Koentjaraningrat andhousehold 1985; Wolf1986.) and in These genderdifferences living arrangements maritalstatusare especially in of 1985). In his study olderpersons at pronounced theolderages (Biro PusatStatistik to that prefer be Java,Evans (1988, p.5) suggests adultson Java"generally Solo, Central ones, than rather compound households to rather unmarried, belongto nuclear than married his that than ones." He reports among elderly onesrather solitary orto belongto compound than the more effectively "men were able to realize these preferences respondents, as independent longas they residentially attempt remain to persons women."Manyelderly 1978;White1976),but able 1967; Sunarto and arephysically economically (Boedhisantoso withat leastone married adultchild. coreside of persons a substantial proportion elderly Research Council 1987) coupledwitha fairly the (National Third, declinein fertility of for potential a weakening the (Hugo et al. 1987) indicates migration levelofinternal high of cohort members thecurrent of network theelderly. for Although the family, idealsupport declinein that mayhave they had by theelderly highfertility, are affected thefertility they havemovedawayfrom children Moreimportant, to many fewer grandchildrenassistthem. live neartheir Studiesshowthat and many parents. their homecommunities thusno longer (Hugo 1983; Mantraand Kasai remit parents moneyand goods to their children migrant Womenare are parents. 1987), buttheseadultchildren not availabledailyto dependent for (Chenet al. 1989; Evans 1990), so thanmento relyon thefamily support morelikely effect gender. by factors thesedemographic mayhave a differential to compared womenin east and southAsian societies,womenin Indonesia Fourth, to haverelatively status 1982). In addition (Winzeler Asia high (andin southeast in general) are in domestic traditional roles,womenon Javaoften activeparticipants thelabor filling and inheritance rights.The public/private, force. Further, they have basic property on is to in cultures notentirely applicable thesituation observed many division male/female their in of and sectors, bothwomen menparticipate a variety economic Java.Yet, although In in womenarefound themore are gender-assigned. general, occupations usually specific of roles, jobs. (For discussions women'sworkand economic menialand/or lower-paying 1981; Mather1983; Stoler 1985; Mangkuprawira see Hardjono1987; Koentjaraningrat 1977;Wolf 1984.) and economic to of also are pertinent a discussion gender resources Household-level for responsible keepingthe The ideal on Java is thatwomenare generally well-being.

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money (pooled by all working household members), spending money, distributing the and members goods amonghousehold (Geertz1961; Hart 1986; Jay 1969; Williams1990). Some studies, however, have suggested thisdecision-making that poweris notabsolute in practice (Mather 1983;White Hastuti and 1980). Evans(1990) reports evidence control that overfunds an important is determinant thenutritional of status olderpersons Java.He of on finds thatworkincomeis a good indicator men's control funds, of of whereasmanaged income a better is measure women'seconomic of control.

THE DATA, VARIABLES, AND METHODS The 1986Survey theElderly Java of on

I use datafrom 1986 survey theelderly a of conducted Javaand sponsored the on by of Association Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) in cooperation withIndonesia'sBiro Pusat Statistik (CentralBureau of Statistics). The survey broad in focus; it provides is information household on economic housing and demographic characteristics of conditions, and theelderly number type living of respondents, individual income and kin,employment, sources support, of socialrelationships activities, and health preparation for receipts, status, old age, andopinions issues.The Indonesian aboutold age andfamily was study conducted as partof an ASEAN study population of Asia. Similarsurveys agingin southeast were in and conducted Malaysia,thePhilippines, Singapore, Thailand(Chenet al. 1989). Ten survey siteswereselected represent to each of thethree and provinces different sectors economic and agriculture, (urban, fishing, manufacturing, trade).Five subdistricts thenwereselectedrandomly within each of thesites;within each subdistrict census four blocks were selectedthrough randomsampling.Finally,roughly10 elderly systematic withat least one individual definedas households households, age 60 or older, were selected from each censusblock.The household from 1985 intercensal list the population All was used to identify households. household members 55 and older survey elderly age if is wereinterviewed, possible.' Fifty-five the official retirement in Indonesia,but age at retirementnotuniversal. is Retirement age 55 is generally limited government to officials andothers pensioned in had rate.(See Sigit 1987, 1988, jobs. The survey a 94% response fora fulldescription thesurvey of design.) I restricted analysis respondents 60 and older.Personsage 55 to 59 were to my age in wereliving with someone 60 orolder.Thesepersons included thesurvey onlyifthey age in their wivesof oldermenand arenotrepresentativetheir fifties = 510) areprimarily of (n 60 21 age group.Of the 3,418 respondents or older,I omitted cases withinconsistent I or responses codingerrors. also excludedthesix never-married individuals becausethey constitute small a groupto analyzeand are unlikeany of theother too marital groups.I the because a number themare of dropped 38 individuals livingonlywithnonrelatives thustheirlivingconditions farbetter are thanwould be predicted fromtheir servants; The characteristics. finalsize of mysampleforanalysis was 3,357. personal

of Indicators Economic Well-Being

menreport and On average, levelsofbothindividual household-level economic higher resources thando women.(See Table 1.) Averageindividual monthly receipts.Receiptsincludemoneyand material support receivedfromall sources,including wages, businessprofits, rents,investment income, and or Thisvariable or from pensions, government charity support, transfers friends family. has of resources overwhich respondent control. inclusion transfers the The from represents

Gender in DifferencesEconomic Well-Being Table 1. Indicators Economic of Well-Being, Gender by (Means) Category Indicator" Individual-level Individual receipts Household-level Household income Housingquality Itemsavailableto household N(receipts) N(household measures) Female 2.99 5.09 2.77 3.55 1,674 1,758 Male 4.51 5.56 2.91 3.85 1,562 1,599 $US(1986)a Female 19.49 36.31

213

Male 31.19 42.72

a I used linearinterpolation assignrupiah to values to themeancategory values. The average rupiah valuesthen wereconverted U.S. 1986 dollarvalues. to b Variablerangesare 1-9 fortheincomemeasures, 1-5 forhousing quality, and 1-7 forthe items household index.

members meansthatwomen(and men)mayclaimcontrol family overincomeearnedby others givento them. but household income. This household measure represents Average monthly the access to resources. ideal on Javais that household The respondent's potential all members sharein the availableresources; some evidence,however, thatelderly suggests persons receiveless thana per capitashare(Evans 1990; Sunarto1978; White1976). The often on of surveyprovidesno information the distribution income withinthe household; therefore elderly the actualshareof household is respondent's resources unknown. in Both monthly incomevariablesare reported nine categories: fewerthan 10,000 rupiah; 10,000to 19,999;20,000 to 29,999; 30,000 to 39,999;40,000 to 49,999; 50,000 to 74,999; 75,000 to 99,999; 100,000 to 149,999; and 150,000 or more.In 1986, 10,000 Fund 1990). rupiah equaled$7.80 US (International Monetary of assess the respondent's My othertwo indicators economicwell-being general environment. These household-level are physical measures less subjectto intrahousehold thanis household allocation decisions income. This indexcombines information sevenitemsscored0 to 3 and on Housingquality. summedfor a range of 0 to 21; a higherscore indicatesbetter quality.It includes on information typeof largest outside wall, typeof largest floor, lighting source facilities, of drinking and water,sourceof washingwater,bathing The facilities, toiletfacilities.2 for coefficient thismeasure .858. I divided indexintofivecategories is the alphareliability 0 fortheanalysis: to 3, 4 to 7, 8 to 11, 12 to 15, and 16 to 21. Thisindexcombines Items availableto thehousehold. to weighted responses questions on access to 11 items.A respondent scored0 on theitemif thehousehold nothave did access and 1 or more(depending if upontheitem'sweight) theitemwas available.Items available fewer to households wereweighted more scoresranged from to 27. The 0 heavily; itemsand weights as follows:cupboard are and furniture bicycle,watch,stove,and (1); radio(2); sewingmachine, and motorcycle refrigerator car (4). The and television, (3); coefficient the scale is .821. I collapsed the indicator for into seven alpha reliability in for 0 categories (based on breaks thedistribution) theanalysis: to 1, 2 to 3, 4 to 5, 6 to 8, 9 to 15, 16 to 20, and 21 to 27.

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Demographic Variables
Gender. Women accountfor 53% of the sample (n= 1,758) and men for 47% on (n = 1,599).3 Older men and womendiffer severalvariablesthatmay be relatedto economic well-being. (See Table 2.) in Age group. Age is reported single years in the survey;because most elderly I individuals notknowtheir do exactages, however, use fourage groups thisanalysis: in of 60-63, 64-67, 68-73, 74 andolder.The age distribution thefemale is population slightly that themalepopulation; differences theage structures themaleand thus in of of olderthan in female differences well-being. populations maybe confounding aggregate gender Men's and women'sresidence residence. Rural/urban patterns notdiffer; do therefore Table 2. Independent Variables, Gender by (Percentages) Variable Age Group 60-63 64-67 68-73 74+ Residence Rural HealthStatus Poor Fair Good Excellent Marital Status Married Widowed Divorced Household Type nuclear Two-generation Lives alone Withspouseonly Extended family Skills Illiterate Does notspeakIndonesian skill No income-generating WorkRoles Neverworked Retired Employee Self-employed/employer Roles Domestic with children Daily contact advice Gives marriage n Females 34.77 21.61 24.91 18.71 65.36 5.13 30.03 61.54 3.30 31.35 63.42 5.23 12.00 13.71 10.24 64.05 67.86 81.00 86.74 26.74 38.62 11.43 23.21 71.10 77.64 1,758 Males 31.77 29.02 20.76 18.45 62.29 6.00 29.02 59.04 5.94 89.43 9.63 0.94 29.21 1.62 20.45 48.72 32.64 52.66 79.80 3.25 34.40 16.32 46.03 76.30 86.66 1,599

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well-being. in for cannot differences economic helpto explaingender controlling residence of determinant in residence the analysisbecause it is an important Even so, I included material wealth. health does notdiffer Healthstatus.Self-reported status (poor, fair,good, excellent) I for status to activity. becauseit is related economic by gender. controlled health married, compared only30% of to Nearly 90% ofthemenarecurrently Marital status. to are more likely be widowed to than menbecausementend are thewomen. Women much wives. Womenalso are are die at younger ages and typically a fewyearsolderthantheir more likely than men to be divorced;the sample, however,containsfew divorced thus, the quickly; especially men,tendto remarry As divorced persons, respondents. noted, in 40% ofboth menand the persons smallat anypoint time.Roughly is number divorced of havebeendivorced leastonce. at thewomen on to head to define four Householdtype.I used information relationship household with nuclear), living with spouseonly(one-generation living alone,living household types: own children nuclear),and livingin an extended-family (two-generation spouse and/or and or children; bothfostering foster, adopted Own children be biological, may household. 1985). Personslivingwith are on adoption common Java(Geertz1961; Koentjaraningrat in from analysis. the Persons identified living a as members onlywereexcluded nonfamily of own children; presence the maybe livingonlywitha spouseand/or nuclear household a in including child's spouse,places theindividual an member, anyother typeof family nuclearhouseholds extendedor household.Personsin one- or two-generation extended also maybe livingwithnonfamily members suchas servants. Men are households family in of women be living either to household; greater proportions more than type nuclear likely Despite a reported of womenthanof men are livingalone or withextendedfamily. on numbers bothmenand women of for arrangements Java,substantial preference nuclear kin thanspousesor children. with other are living Levels of Skills of to stableor offer someindication therespondent's ability obtain The skillsvariables also provide limited information in years.Thesevariables well-paying employment thelater to resources over earlier adultyearsandhis or herability accumulate abouttheindividual's social status. the educational time.In addition, Although general they mayreflect family's the relative social status acrossthe generations, family's levelshave increased markedly who the mayhave changedlittle.For example,53.9% of respondents speakIndonesian, whodo notspeakIndonesian, in a household are but national language, only18.1% ofthose who has completed juniorhigh school or a higherlevel of withat least one member education. in either theRomanalphabet A (used forthenational maybe literate Literacy. person language)or in one of the ethnicalphabets.Literacyin the Roman alphabetis more of a levelsare verylow forthiscohort theelderly; Educational provides common. literacy than would a measureof grades of clearerindicator differences among individuals of A proportion womenthanof menare illiterate. completed. greater to The ability speakthenational to language mayhelpolder Ability speakIndonesian. This or officials in certain typesof employment. personsin dealingswithgovernment thanmento report of Womenare less likely being variable also an indicator education. is able to speakIndonesian. of the skill. An income-generating Although proportions men and of womenwith of skills greater proportion menthanof women income-generating are notlarge,a slightly a between education and correlation sucha skill.Sigit(1988) reports positive reports having

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having job skillamong a these elderly respondents. finds better-educated He that persons are more likely to reportpossessing skills, but that, among those who have skills, better-educated are persons less likelyto be usingthem currently. a sourceof income, As skills in income-generating appearto be mostimportant workers the informal to sector. Thusjob skillsmayaffect the incomeboththrough relationship educational to levels and the that to through benefits suchskillsbring persons withlittle no schooling. or

Social Roles
either workactivities from Becauseresources or maybe obtained through kin,activity in in and authority bothspheres maybe important determining economic well-being. work to a Work roles.I usedboth variable: pastandcurrent activity form four-category neverworked; retired; currently working, employee; currently working, self-employed or of all everbeingin the employer. Three-quarters thewomenand nearly of themenreport are laborforce.Olderwomen less likely than oldermento be currently working (34.6% vs. thosewhoareworking, women less likely havepower(employer) are to or 62.3%). Among in autonomy (self-employed) theworkplace. how oftentheyvisitedchildren Daily contactwithchildren. Respondents reported I outside household howoften the and thesechildren visited them. dichotomized living this of who measure domestic to withadult activity identify respondents reported dailycontact and less children thosewhoreported frequent no contact. or whodo Manyelderly persons have a childliving notcoreside withadultchildren and nearby (Evans 1985; Mantra Kasai as children havingdaily contact,and 1987). I code elderlypersonswith coresident as children having contact. majority respondents no The with of respondents no living report morelikely have suchfrequent but to contact. dailycontact, menare slightly at to indicated what they Willingness giveadviceregarding marriage. Respondents age shouldmarry whattheywoulddo if a childwanted marry and believedtheir children to late. I defined possibleresponses either the as activeor passive.4Persons earlyor marry are at are giving leastone activeresponse coded 1; persons giving onlypassiveresponses said wouldoffer to coded0. Mostof therespondents they advice,butmenare morelikely is an report activeresponse.The purposeof this indicator to measurethe individual's within family. variable, The information on theelderly the authority however, provides only In the of members notmeasured. other are respondent's perception; perceptions other family the advicewouldbe followed. whether parental words,it is notknown Methods In assessing grossand neteffects gender well-being, analyzeeach of the the of I on four indicators economic of resources Because all oftheindicators well-being of separately. I are (thedependent variables) ordinal-level variables, use cumulative logistic regression. (See Agresti 1984.) This ordinal-variable modelis based on thecumulative distribution logistic-regression of of of rather thanon individual probabilities the categories the indicators well-being of Withan indicator form logistic probabilities in themorefamiliar (as binary regression). the numberof intercept is of j categories, estimated j - 1. For example, parameters in thuseightintercepts calculated, householdincomeis measured nine categories; are the of or representing respective probabilities havingan incomeof 150,000rupiah more, or or 100,000rupiah more,and so on downto havingan incomeof 10,000rupiah more. for One coefficient, is estimated each independent variable that becauseitis assumed the B,

in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being

217

k k category to category + 1 is thesameforall k. In from on effect anyvariable moving of of incomeexample,I assumethattheeffect beingwidowedversusbeing thehousehold is married thesame acrossall incomecategories. I five nestedmodels. Economic technique, estimate Using this logisticregression model. In the second model, the only on genderin the first is well-being regressed The status. and residence health as of effect age is controlled, are rural/urban confounding type)are addedin and status household variables (marital demographic possiblemediating and job languageability, of model. The threemeasures skillslevels (literacy, the third usingall showthat tests collinearity for in model.Diagnostic skills)areincluded thefourth of the Finally, measures publicand of three measures skillsin themodelis notproblematic. and advice)are addedas marriage with children, giving roles(work roles,contact domestic of with addition each setofmediating the in effect I regressors.focuson changes thegender variables. namely indicator, economic onlyfortheindividual-level modelis estimated The final of reflect characteristics measures the economic Because thehousehold individual receipts. are roles on thoseindicators of effects individuals' members, expected the all household and unclear thusare notestimated. may becausecausation receipts the from modelsofindividual type I excludehousehold in between individualresourcesand living run in both directions the relationship within household in receipts differences individual Instead,I assess gender arrangements. models. in types a seriesof stratified modelsstratified main sourceof material by receipts the I also estimate individual werenot on reliance kin. Levels of receipts versus primary self-support primarily support, from the of by separately source(withtheexception workincome);the results reported in on differences remittances. someinformation gender modelsprovide stratified

EXPECTED RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN GENDER AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING

over material to I defineeconomicwell-being includeboth access to and control have in of Descriptions women's economicdisadvantage old age frequently resources. describe womenas Studiesthat of lack of control resources. on focused women'srelative their access to the in of emphasize their from position authority old age often benefiting As bothtypesof economicresources. shownin Table 1, of resources kin. I investigate thando men. and economic well-being lowerlevelsof individual household women report for with or be should reduced eliminated controls the on differences theseindicators Gender skills,and social rolesvariables. demographic, age amongthe olderold; therefore may disproportionately Womenare represented effect individual on receipts factor. as Age shouldhave a negative operate a confounding to and and thuson workactivity theopportunity on its ability through influence physical of and workrolesshouldlessentheeffect age. for status earnincome.Controlling health has the Also, thegreater age, themoretimea person had to depletehis or herresources. The of economicwell-being. determinant household Age shouldbe a less important and children shouldhavefewer but dependent olderold maybe outof thelaborforce, they unmarried resources. able (Amongtherespondents, morechildren financially to contribute married coresident children whereas are children dependents, coresident usually considered as household members.) are described contributing on effects economic shouldhavenegative well-being, and Ruralresidence poorhealth effect. shouldnotchangethegender for butcontrolling thesefactors

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The maritaland householdvariables represent possible sources of supportor opportunities access to resources. for Unmarried persons thosewho live alone or only and thus withspouse will have fewerindividuals contributing the household'sresources; to economicwell-being shouldbe lower. Conversely, personsin theirlevels of household with multigeneration family households shouldbenefit from havingadditional members The effects marital of statusshouldbe similarforindividual whomto pool resources. from spouses. economic well-being:unmarried persons cannot rely on transfers for in in Controlling genderdifferences maritalstatusshould reduce the differences The possible mediating effects householdtype on household of economicwell-being. are Womenare morelikely live alone (negative to on economic effect well-being unclear. households resources)and more likelyto be in extended-family (positiveeffect).The shouldbe especiallystrong; for of effect livingalone, however, controlling the gender on should reduce the gender difference household difference that characteristic on well-being. boththe individual's to The skillsvariablesmay influence abilityand opportunity Personswithgreater skillsshouldbe better able to findwork obtainaccess to resources. I shouldearnhigher incomes.In addition, interpret skillslevels as and, whenworking, rolesin younger adulthood. Persons with skillsshould have indicating accessto work better resources. Womentendto be less skilledthanmen, so I been moreable to accumulate for in that differences individual receipts. expect controlling skillslevelswillreduce gender in effect the household Skills levels shouldhave less of a gender-mediating well-being will but maybe models:unskilled respondents contribute to thehousehold, that less effect of masked thecontributions others. by I expect and levels that moreactivepersons thosewith moreauthority havehigher will who work and those with more authority the in of individualreceipts.Respondents will have more earnedincome. Personswho interact workplace daily withtheiradult to and are remittances. children thosewithsome domestic authority likely receivegreater and lowerlevelsof domestic lowerlevelsof workactivity slightly Womenreport markedly for shouldreducethegender and therefore activity authority; controlling thesedifferences on effect receipts. I expecta directgendereffect individual on even economicwell-being remain, to and are The netgender effect whenthesevariousdemographic social factors controlled. Even shouldbe due to an economic adulthood. advantage experienced menthroughout by in womenon Javamay hold lower-paying whendifferences skillslevels are controlled, In if jobs thanmen and thusmay have lowerlevels of economicwell-being. addition, adultyearsthanmenin thelaborforce, womenhave spentfewer theywill have had less to opportunity accumulateresources.Gender, however, also may affecteconomic If norms levels of support well-being through regarding support. womenreceivehigher levels of economicwell-being, of theother net from factors. kin,theymayreport higher will help to sortout these Resultsof the analysisstratified main sourceof support by effects. possiblecompeting I expectgender in differences household economic to a of well-being be largely result I Thereforeexpectthat for differences livingarrangements. in controlling thedemographic the effect household on economic variables, especially livingalone, will eliminate gender well-being.

RESULTS
in from seriesof nested the modelsare summarized Tables 3 and4. Table The results 3 illustrates effect each set of control as variables added to the is changesin thegender

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Well-Being: ChangesacrossNested Table 3. The Effect BeingFemaleon Economic of Models (Odds Ratios) Model Gender only Plus age, health, and residence Plus demographic variables Plus skills variables Plus social roles n Individual Receipts .287*** .282*** .473*** .733*** .833* 3,236 Household Income .694*** .706*** .837* 1.223* 3,357 Housing Quality .860* .893 .889 1.219* 3,357 Items Available .735*** .753*** .884 1.342*** 3,357

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

the results from finalmodelforeach indicator well-being. of The model.Table 4 reports and of acrossthemodels,withtwo changelittle effects thedemographic skillsvariables are in the model (with exceptions: age and healthstatuseffects significant the simpler in and but models. status) becomeinsignificanttheexpanded gender, age, residence, health

of Gross Effects Genderon EconomicWell-Being

lower on the well-being both individual Women report significantly levelsofeconomic measures. andthehousehold (See Table 3, Row 1.) Womenhavelowerlevelsofindividual income thando men;thegender effect stronger theindividual is for receipts household and as income measure.Females are less thanone-third likelyas males to be in a higher and are abouttwo-thirds likelyto be in a measure as on category theindividual receipts and household on (Individual receipts higher category the householdincomeindicator. Womenalso have lowerscoreson the in incomeare measured thesame ninecategories.) itemsavailableto thehousehold. and of consumer indices housing of quality of effect beingolderdoes notmarkedly for change negative Controlling thesignificant and on resources. thegender effect individual receipts household (See Table 3, Row 2.) on thanurbanarea has a significant effect economic area rather negative Livingin a rural measures.Personsin better healthreport well-being, especiallyon the household-level and household.Health status,however,has no higherincomelevels, both individual or available. items effect housing on significant quality consumer

of The MediatingEffects the DemographicVariables

to to the effect status household and marital type themodeltends reduce gender Adding for modeland The on economic pronounced theindividual-level well-being. changeis most is negligible housing for quality. (See Table 3, Row 3.) is it Without effect individual on the strong. receipts reduced, remains Although gender in income are the theadditional category .28 forwomen controls, oddsofbeingin a higher model.The gender effect this on the relation men,whereas odds are .47 in theexpanded to in status. Widowedand differences marital is mediated gender indicator beingpartially by

220

Vol. 30, No. 2, May 1993 Demography,

of Table 4. Regression Results(Odds Ratios):The Effects theDemographic, Skills,and Roles Variables Variable Female Age group 64-67 68-73 74+ Ruralresidence Healthstatus Excellent Good Fair status Marital Widowed Divorced Household type Lives alone Spouse only family Extended Skills Illiterate No Indonesian No job skill Workroles Employee Self/Employer with Contact children Gives advice n
X2

Individual Receipts .833* .978 .976 .730** .618*** 1.680* 1.218 1.132 .465*** .508***

Household Income 1.223* .915 .948 .930 .354*** 1.823** 1.531** 1.251 .852 .948 .135*** .551*** 1.962***

Housing Quality 1.219* .924 .908 .999 .180*** 1.012 .846 .946 1.184 .871 .535*** .686*** 1.155 .799** .300*** .968

Items Available 1.342*** .899 .835* .978 .220*** 1.511* 1.049 .922 .891 .853 .176*** .490*** 1.638*** .671*** .267*** .974

.450*** .316*** .746*** 1.339* 1.906*** 1.035 1.313*** 1471.836*** 3,326

.651 ***

.722*** .291*** .823*

Retired

1475.609*** 3,357

1261.195*** 3,357

1631.292*** 3,357

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

havelowerindividual incomes than married do because probably persons, divorced persons from women cannot receive transfers spouses.(Halfofthemarried report unmarried persons from their spouses.) material support receiving in mediate gender the effect household on differences household Gender type partially for of are household-level The economic type similar thethree well-being. effects household in households, nuclear-family indicators. Compared with respondents two-generation personswho live alone or only withspouse have lower levels of householdeconomic households have higher levels. These effects and well-being, personsin extended-family to in of reflect and differences thenumber members contributing wereexpected mostlikely on effect thehousehold-level does nothavea strong Marital status thehousehold economy. indicators.

in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being

221

of The MediatingEffects the Skills Variables

significant the for remains effect beingfemale of model,thenegative In theexpanded for effect reverses but direction the economic measure individual of well-being, thegender well-being. (See Table 3, Row 4.) economic indicators household of on the effect reduces gender the Introducing skillslevelsintothemodelsubstantially and of not individual receipts. expected,the effects illiteracy, speakingIndonesian, As a to reflect lesserability These effects no skill having income-generating are all negative. of is Indonesian and earna good income bothcurrently in thepast.The effect notspeaking are as to whocannot language one-third likely speakthenational strong; persons especially who do so. as incomecategory persons be in a higher thando also have lowerlevels of household economicwell-being Unskilled persons is factor thatthe averagehouseholdsize of unskilled skilledpersons.One contributing that is thanthatof moreskilledrespondents; is, thereare probably respondents smaller fewerworkingadults. Anotherfactorinvolves the positive associationbetweenthe This association suggests household members. skillslevelsand thoseof other respondents' than members havea lowerearning persons. potential moreskilled unskilled household that in size of do kin, Thesedifferences household andin theeducation coresident however, in the effect economic on notexplainwhydifferences skillslevels wouldmediate gender the is simply because effect found level. Mostlikely mediating well-being thehousehold at of independent the is less theunskilled elderly respondent contributing to thehousehold, household members. contributions by other made

of The MediatingEffects Social Roles

to was to positively levelsof Individual economic well-being hypothesized be related hold true.The gender effect on the and generally activity authority; positedrelationships in model. is but individual significant theexpanded marginally receipts reduced, remains (See Table 3, Row 5.) and employers) who work(employees, As expected, self-employed persons, persons have significantly lower not Retirees thanpersons currently incomes working. havehigher because worked those and whonever working, possibly currently than both persons incomes for retired personscould not findan adequatereplacement lost workincome.In elderly I and that in the force, find theself-employed theemployers comparing twogroups thework thanemployees. levelsof receipts have significantly higher with children)on receiptsis The effectof domesticactivity(daily interaction effect. Persons but advice) has a positive authority (givingmarital insignificant, domestic from children. with domestic authority may receive higher levels of remittances or is a business farm, bulk the ifthe income derived from family Alternatively, household's withthemostauthority as incomeby theperson of theincome maybe regarded individual in thehousehold.

in Differences IndividualReceiptsby Main Source of Support

that on of receipts suggests The positiveeffect beingemployed individual monthly In levelsthanremittances. fact,on average,persons are at workincomes generally higher than lowerlevels of receipts is from others whosemainsourceof support transfers report (roughly$14.81, comparedto $31.97). Nearly personswho are more self-sufficient to for on of compared roughly two-thirds thewomenrelyprimarily remittances support,

222

Vol. 30, No. 2, May 1993 Demography,

because of one-quarter themen. Thus womenappearto be at an economicdisadvantage being in the work force and being they are less likely to be employed.Further, 11.1% of the men and respondents, cannotbe equated. Amongworking self-sufficient mainsourceof support. are report remittances their that 25.7% of thewomen an individual they receipts, mayexperience women havelowerlevelsoftotal Although The remittances. resultsof the of particularly categories support, advantagein certain thatwomendo not receivehigher suggest by analysisstratified main sourceof support the thanmen. Further, resultsshow thatamong self-supporting levels of remittances (See Table 5.) Among lower also have significantly levelsof receipts. women respondents, as likelyas mento be in a higher who relyon kin,womenare three-fourths olderpersons as elderly persons,womenare one-fourth Amongmoreself-sufficient incomecategory. in difference workincomeis notdue The category. gender as likely mento be in a higher an of menwork average 36.7 hours week,and per in employed worked; todifferences hours womenwork35.5 hours. employed but reduces does not for skills,and socialrolesvariables Controlling thedemographic, The respondents. in amongthe self-supporting the eliminate genderdifference receipts modelsfortherespondents who in however, theexpanded effect reverses direction, gender levels of status,womenappearto receivehigher on are dependent kin. Net of marital on to women whoaredependent kinappear widowed than words, remittances men.In other economic disadvantage. the experience greatest

in Type Differences Individual by Receipts Household

type. in also by difference receipts vary household and The levelofreceipts thegender income are lowest among those livingalone and in For women,levels of individual the households. Amongmen,thoselivingalone report lowestlevels of extended-family monthly receipts.Men who live alone, however,still have higheraverage individual womenhave each typeof livingarrangement, thananygroupof women.Within incomes thanmen. (See Table 5.) lowerlevelsof receipts significantly reduces effect being the of in status differences marital for generally Controlling gender effect gender-mediating within appearto havethestrongest but female, theskillsvariables effect household types.Whenthisgroupof variablesis added to the model,thegender significance becomes insignificant (lives alone, spouse only) or is reducedto marginal extended family). nuclear, (two-generation womenfarebest whenlivingonly withtheir terms, In bothabsoluteand relative in than are however, found thislivingarrangement in anyother. spouses.Fewerwomen,

CONCLUSIONS
than womenhave lowerlevels of economicwell-being In thebivariate relationship, in household type,skillslevels, and social roles status, men. Genderdifferences marital for in resources. differences observed economic Controlling various to contribute thegender and reducesthe economicmeasures on the factors reverses gendereffect the household effect individual on receipts. measures is of The positive effect beingfemalein thefinalmodelforthehousehold household in within types.For example, composition likelydue to differences household witholdermales are morelikelyto be dependent (and thusto adultchildren coresiding withfemales. coresiding contribute thanare adultchildren less) the that the support argument economic well-being, results individual-level Regarding

in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being o
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223

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r- r-_ r-_ i

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4-4

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, .*

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*

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ct

a
0
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* * *=

ct

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CA

224

Demography, Vol. 30, No. 2, May 1993

women experience economic disadvantage throughout adulthood. can argue One that gender in in differences skillslevels reflect differences availableroles at younger gender ages. Because remittances at lower levels thanworkincome,womenappearto be at an are because theymustrelyon otherpeople to providesupport. economicdisadvantage In men are morelikelythanwomento report addition, receiving pensionsand investment income;thisfinding suggests thatmenhave been moreable to accumulate resources over no that morethanmenfrom time.These data contain indication womenbenefit alliances withadultchildren. It appears women havedirect control fewer of that resources four for primary reasons: 1) womenare less likelyto have workincome;2) whenwomendo work,theygenerally olderpersons whoaredependent kin,women on earnless than men;3) evenamong receive and lowerlevels of remittances; 4) womenhave been less able to accumulate resources adulthood. during incomeis themostaccurate measure women'scontrol resources of Yet ifmanaged of of and if workincomeis the mostaccurateindicator men's control (see Evans 1990), better relation men.About60% of menreported in to womenmayfaresomewhat earning workincome,and the same percentage womenreported of the beingeither head of the household thespouseofthehead. Thiscomparison or be should madecautiously, however, were not asked specifically because respondents whether theymanagedthe household's income.Some of thewomenwho reported beinghead or spouseof head, particularly in extended be of families, maynotactually incharge thehousehold's resources. 22% Further, of the women who identified as themselves head or spouse are livingalone, so they probably managelow levelsof resources. In sum,gender in differences availableandappropriate in bothyounger older roles and adulthood to in differences theindividual economic appearto contribute gender well-being Differences current in of theelderly. and to livingarrangements in skillslevelsare central in differences household resources. understanding gender

NOTES
1 Interviewing oldermembers thehousehold create problem all a of can regarding independence ofobservations becausetheunit thesampling of frame thehousehold, theunit analysis the is but of is individual. in Usingall elements (eligiblerespondents) a selected cluster is (household) generally not a problem whenthenumber elements cluster smallor whentheintraclass of is per correlation within is or thecluster thesurvey on variables negligible negative (Kalton1983). Forthesampleusedin the each household contained average 1.2 eligible an of a analysis, smallnumber. respondents,relatively 2 The following codes are used: wall (3=cement) (1.5=wood, other)(0=bamboo); floor

(1.5=petromac, other) (0=kerosene); drinkingwater and washing water (3=pipe, pump) (1.5=well, other)(0=spring, rain,river);bathroom (3=own in house) (2=own outsidehouse) (1=shared) (0=public, other);and toilet(3=own withseptictank)(2=own without septictank)
3 The respondent's twicein the questionnaire. genderis reported Codingerrors produced 86 differs between household individual the and cases in which For gender reports. thesecases I assigned on between respondent his or herfirst only) the and gender thebasis of reported difference age (or is I the is spouse.If theage difference three yearsor greater, assumethat younger and person female theolderperson male.On Java,husbands is are their wives.I couldnotresolve 21 typically olderthan are from analysis. cases withthisdecisionrule,so they amongthosewhichI dropped the 4 To thequestion whattherespondent of woulddo if thechildwanted marry to early,active and responses include the Passiveresponses denypermission ask thechildto postpone marriage. are on the on and what approve marriage, the depends spouse,depends dowry, other, notsure.Regarding are respondent woulddo ifthechildhadnotmarried theidealage, active by responses urgehimorher

(3=tile)

(2=cement, brick) (1.5=other) (1=wood,

bamboo) (0=earth, soil); lights (3=electric)

(1 = shared) (0 = public, other).

in GenderDifferences EconomicWell-Being

225

a no not include suggestion, a problem, to marry helphimor herfind spouse.Passiveresponses and and notsure.

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