REFERENCES: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Nervous_System http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system http://www.docstoc.com/docs/51392633/Nervous-Tissues-Neuron-and-Neuroglia-Cells http://www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/somatosensation.

html Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology Second Edition by Seeley, Stephens and Tate Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology Sixth Edition by Seeley, Stephens and Tate Marieb; Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 9th Ed.

NAME Bayubay Irene Ribunal, Roel Alvarez, Bernaette Bermuez, Charisse Felipe, Cathleen Dapiawen, Roselle Manahan, Sam Mateo, Ellen Grace Santiago, Ivory

COMMENT

The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System
Sensory inputgathering information To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body Action Potential from the sensory receptors travels along nerves to the spinal cord and brain, where they are interpreted. Integration To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed. Homeostasis It helps detect an response to changes Can stimulate or inhibit the activities to help maintain a constant environment The hypothalamus is one of the busiest parts of the brain, and is mainly concerned with homeostasis. The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating your hunger, thirst, response to pain, levels of pleasure, sexual satisfaction, anger and aggressive behavior, and more. Mental Activity It is through the brain: Cerebrum: Center of thinking, Memory, Emotions, Sensory impulse interpretations and all voluntary actions Control of Muscles an Glands Motor Output A response to integrated stimuli The response activates muscles or glands Cerebellum: Responsible for the coordination of muscles and is the center of balance.

Division of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord Nerves Ganglia Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System

 Sensory (afferent) division Conducts action potential from sensory receptors to the central nervous system Motor (efferent) division Conducts action potential away from the central nervous system to effector organ Two subdivisions Somatic nervous system = voluntary Autonomic nervous system = involuntary Sympathetic an Parasympathetic Division Enteric Nervous System-associated with the digestive system

Cells of the Nervous System

Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as neuroglia Function: to support, insulate, and protect neurons Astrocytes Abundant, star-shaped cells Brace neurons Form barrier between capillaries and neurons Control the chemical environment of the brain Microglia Spiderlike phagocytes Dispose of debris Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Ependymal cells Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord Circulate cerebrospinal fluid Oligodendrocytes Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system Produce myelin sheaths Nervous Tissue: Support Cells Schwann cells Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system Neurons = nerve cells Cells specialized to transmit messages Major regions of neurons Cell bodynucleus and metabolic center of the cell Processesfibers that extend from the cell body: axon an dendrites Cell body Nissl substance

Specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum Neurofibrils Intermediate cytoskeleton Maintains cell shape Cell body Nucleus Large nucleolus Processes outside the cell body Dendritesconduct impulses toward the cell body Axonsconduct impulses away from the cell body Axons end in axonal terminals Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap Synaptic cleftgap between adjacent neurons Synapsejunction between nerves Myelin sheathwhitish, fatty material covering axons Schwann cellsproduce myelin sheaths in jelly rolllike fashion Nodes of Ranviergaps in myelin sheath along the axon Neuron Cell Body Location Most neuron cell bodies are found in the central nervous system Gray mattercell bodies and unmyelinated fibers Nucleiclusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central nervous system Gangliacollections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system

Functional Classification of Neurons

Sensory (afferent) neurons Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS Cutaneous sense organs Proprioceptorsdetect stretch or tension Motor (efferent) neurons Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera, muscles, or glands Interneurons (association neurons) Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system Connect sensory and motor neurons Neuron Classification

Structural Classification of Neurons

Multipolar neuronsmany extensions from the cell body Structural Classification of Neurons Bipolar neuronsone axon and one dendrite Unipolar neuronshave a short single process leaving the cell body

Functional Properties of Neurons

Irritability

 Ability to respond to stimuli Conductivity Ability to transmit an impulse Nerve Impulses Resting Membrane Potential The plasma membrane at rest is polarized Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell Depolarization A stimulus depolarizes the neurons membrane A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron Nerve Impulses Action potential If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath Nerve Impulses Repolarization Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane The sodium-potassium pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration Nerve Impulses

Transmission of a Signal at Synapses

Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve Neurotransmitter is released from a nerves axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite Synapse- is a junction that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell Presynaptic Terminal- the end of the axon Postsynaptic Membrane- the membrane of the dendrite or effector cell Synaptic Cleft- the space separating the presynaptic terminal from postsynaptic membrane. Neurotransmitter substances, the best known: acetylcholine and nor epinephrine

The Reflex Arc

Reflexrapid, predictable, and involuntary response to a stimulus

 Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs Reflex arcdirect route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector Five basic Components Sensory Receptor Sensory Neuron Interneuron- neurons located between an communicating with 2 other neurons Motor neurons Effector Organ

Neural Pathways
Converging Pathways- have two or more neurons that synapse with the same neuron. Diverging Pathways- the axon from one neuron divides and synapse with more than one other neuron. Simple Reflex Arc

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

Somatic reflexes Activation of skeletal muscles Example: When you move your hand away from a hot stove Types of Reflexes and Regulation Autonomic reflexes Smooth muscle regulation Heart and blood pressure regulation Regulation of glands Digestive system regulation

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

Patellar, or knee-jerk, reflex is an example of a two-neuron reflex arc

Central Nervous System (CNS)

CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles Four chambers within the brain Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Regions of the Brain Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum

 Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain Includes more than half of the brain mass The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum

Lobes of the cerebrum Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes Surface lobes of the cerebrum Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Specialized areas of the cerebrum Primary somatic sensory area Receives impulses from the bodys sensory receptors Located in parietal lobe Primary motor area Sends impulses to skeletal muscles Located in frontal lobe Brocas area Involved in our ability to speak Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Cerebral areas involved in special senses Gustatory area (taste) Visual area Auditory area Olfactory area Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Interpretation areas of the cerebrum Speech/language region Language comprehension region General interpretation area Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Layers of the cerebrum Gray matterouter layer in the cerebral cortex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies White matterfiber tracts deep to the gray matter Corpus callosum connects hemispheres Basal nucleiislands of gray matter buried within the white matter

Sensory Functions
ASCENDING TRACTS

Ascending tracts consist of sensory neurons, conducting impulses towards the brain. The ascending fibre tracts convey sensory information from cutaneous receptors, proprioceptors (muscle and joint senses), and visceral receptors. Most of the sensory information that originates in the right side of the body crosses over and eventually reach the region on the left side of the brain, which analyses this information. Similarly, the information arising in the left side of the body is ultimately analysed by the right side of the brain. This decussation occurs in the medulla oblongata for sensory modalities, or in the spinal cord for other modalities of sensation. With the ascending tracts transmitting sensory information (from receptors in the skin, skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, & various visceral receptors). Ascending tracts carry impulses along the spinal cord toward the brain
DESCENDING TRACTS

Descending tracts carry them from the brain or higher regions in the spinal cord to lower regions. The descending tracts transmitting motor information (to skeletal muscles, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & glands). The spinal cord is also responsible for spinal reflexes.

SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Sensory areas The sensory areas are the areas that receive and process information from the senses. Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the thalamus are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex and primary somatosensory cortex. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. For example the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual field. The organization of sensory maps in the cortex reflects that of the corresponding sensing organ, in what is known as a topographic map. Neighboring points in the primary visual cortex, for example, correspond to neighboring points in the retina. This

topographic map is called a retinotopic map. In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus, where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with lots of sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation. The primary sensory areas are the main cerebral areas that receive sensory information from thalamic nerve projections. Though some areas of the human brain that receive primary sensory information remain poorly defined, each of the five sensory modalities has been recognized to relate to specific groups of brain cells that begin to categorize and integrate sensory information. Somatosensory system: The primary somatosensory cortex (SI) is across the central sulcus and behind the primary motor cortex configured to generally correspond with the arrangement of nearby motor cells related to specific body parts. The area includes gray matter along the central gyrus and its extension into the postcentral gyrus. Taste: The primary gustatory area is near the face representation within the postcentral gyrus. It starts at about the most lateral point on the gyrus and continues into the insular cortex where the postcentral gyrus folds over the operculum (Latin: eyelid or lid) of the gyrus at the lateral sulcus. Olfaction: Olfactory cortex located in the uncus which is found along the ventral surface of the temporal lobe. Olfaction is the only sensory system that is not routed through the thalamus. Vision: The visual area known as V1, striate cortex, or (primary visual cortex, Brodmann area 17) is located on the calcarine sulcus deep within the inside folds of the occipital lobe. Hearing: The primary auditory cortex is located on the transverse gyri that lie on the back of the superior temporal convolution of the temporal lobes.

MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (MOTOR CORTEX) Motor cortex is a term that describes regions of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary motorfunctions.

The motor cortex can be divided into four main parts: the primary motor cortex (or M1), responsible for generating the neural impulses controlling execution of movement and the secondary motor cortices, including the posterior parietal cortex, responsible for transforming visual information into motor commands the premotor cortex, responsible for motor guidance of movement and control of proximal and trunk muscles of the body

and the supplementary motor area (or SMA), responsible for planning
and coordination of complex movements such as those requiring two hands.

Non-activity responses in the motor cortex

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans of persons reading words have shown that the act of reading a verb that refers to a face, arm, or leg action causes increased blood flow and activity in the motor cortex.[1] The areas of the motor cortex that are active correspond to sites of the motor cortex that are associated with that activity. For example, reading the word lick would increase blood flow in sites corresponding to tongue and mouth movements. While reading the verbs, blood flow also increases in premotor regions, Broca's area and Wernicke's area.

Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon

Sits on top of the brain stem Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres Made of three parts Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus Thalamus Surrounds the third ventricle The relay station for sensory impulses Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and

interpretation Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Hypothalamus Under the thalamus Important autonomic nervous system center Helps regulate body temperature Controls water balance Regulates metabolism Hypothalamus (continued) An important part of the limbic system (emotions) The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus Epithalamus Forms the roof of the third ventricle Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) Includes the choroid plexusforms cerebrospinal fluid

Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem

Attaches to the spinal cord Parts of the brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Midbrain Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers Has two bulging fiber tracts cerebral peduncles Has four rounded protrusions corpora quadrigemina Reflex centers for vision and hearing Pons The bulging center part of the brain stem Mostly composed of fiber tracts Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing Medulla Oblongata The lowest part of the brain stem Merges into the spinal cord Includes important fiber tracts Contains important control centers Heart rate control Blood pressure regulation Breathing Swallowing Vomiting Reticular Formation

 Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem Involved in motor control of visceral organs Reticular activating system (RAS) plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

Regions of the Brain: Reticular Formation of the Brain Stem Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum
Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

Protection of the Central Nervous System

Scalp and skin Skull and vertebral column Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Blood-brain barrier

Protection of the Central Nervous System Meninges

Dura mater Double-layered external covering Periosteumattached to inner surface of the skull Meningeal layerouter covering of the brain Folds inward in several areas Arachnoid layer Middle layer Web-like Pia mater Internal layer Clings to the surface of the brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Similar to blood plasma composition Formed by the choroid plexus Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Hydrocephalus in a Newborn
Hydrocephalus CSF accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain if not allowed to drain

Blood-Brain Barrier
Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body Excludes many potentially harmful substances Useless as a barrier against some substances Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases

 Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia

Traumatic Brain Injuries

Concussion Slight brain injury No permanent brain damage Contusion Nervous tissue destruction occurs Nervous tissue does not regenerate Cerebral edema Swelling from the inflammatory response May compress and kill brain tissue Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) Commonly called a stroke The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies Loss of some functions or death may result

Alzheimers Disease
Progressive degenerative brain disease Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion, and ultimately, hallucinations and death

Spinal Cord
Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end

Spinal Cord Anatomy

Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies Dorsal (posterior) horns Anterior (ventral) horns Gray matter surrounds the central canal Central canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Exterior white materconduction tracts Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns Spinal Cord Anatomy Meninges cover the spinal cord Spinal nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae

 Dorsal root Associated with the dorsal root gangliacollections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system Ventral root Contains axons

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue Endoneurium surrounds each fiber Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium Fascicles are bound together by epineurium

PNS: Classification of Nerves

Mixed nerves Both sensory and motor fibers Sensory (afferent) nerves Carry impulses toward the CNS Motor (efferent) nerves Carry impulses away from the CNS PNS: Cranial Nerves 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to thoracic and abdominal cavities Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only

PNS: Cranial Nerves

I Olfactory nervesensory for smell II Optic nervesensory for vision III Oculomotor nervemotor to four of six eye extrinsic muscles and upper eyelid; parasympathetic constrict pupil; thickens lens IV Trochlearmotor to one extrinsic eye muscles V Trigeminal nervesensory for the face and teeth; motor to muscle of mastication VI Abducens nervemotor fibers to eye muscles VII Facial nervesensory for taste; motor fibers to the face VIII Vestibulocochlear nervesensory for balance and hearing PNS: Cranial Nerves IX Glossopharyngeal nervesensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx X Vagus nervessensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera XI Accessory nervemotor fibers to neck and upper back XII Hypoglossal nervemotor fibers to tongue

PNS: Spinal Nerves

There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord Named for the region from which they arise PNS: Spinal Nerves PNS: Anatomy of Spinal Nerves Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord Dorsal ramiserve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk Ventral ramiform a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior PNS: The Spinal Nerves PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses PNS: Distribution of Major Peripheral Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs PNS: Autonomic Nervous System Motor subdivision of the PNS Consists only of motor nerves Also known as the involuntary nervous system Regulates activities of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands Two subdivisions Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division

PNS: Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

Nerves Somatic: one motor neuron Autonomic: preganglionic and postganglionic nerves Effector organs Somatic: skeletal muscle Autonomic: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands PNS: Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Neurotransmitters Somatic: always use acetylcholine Autonomic: use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine PNS: Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems PNS: Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division Originates from T1 through L2 Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal cord) Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long post-ganglionic neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector organs

PNS: Sympathetic Pathways

PNS: Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

Originates from the brain stem and S1 through S4 Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

PNS: Autonomic Functioning

Sympatheticfight or flight Response to unusual stimulus Takes over to increase activities Remember as the E division Exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment Parasympathetichousekeeping activites Conserves energy Maintains daily necessary body functions Remember as the D division digestion, defecation, and dieresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop Development Aspects of the Nervous System No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several years The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult # Name General Function Specific Function

I II III IV V

Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal

smell vision

motor to four of six eye extrinsic muscles a eyelid; parasympathetic constrict pupil; th motor to one extrinsic eye muscles

sensory for the face and teeth; motor to m mastication

VI VII

Abducens Facial

motor to one extrinsic eye muscles

Sensory: taste; motor to muscle of facial e parasympathetic to salivary and tear galn Hearing and balance

VIII

Vestibulocochlear

IX

Glossopharyngeal

Sensory: taste and touch to the back of th motor to pharyngeal muscles; parasympa salivary gland.

Vagus

Sensory to pharynx, larynx, and viscera; m pharynx and larynx; parasympathetic to v thorax and abdomen motor fibers to neck and upper back

XI

Accessory

XII

Hypoglossal

motor fibers to tongue