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Soil Compaction

Geotechnical Engineering 367 Dr Mohamed Shahin

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Introduction
In geotechnical engineering practice, soils at a given site may be loose or highly compressible so that the induced load from the superstructure is higher than the bearing capacity of soil, leading to soil failure and excessive settlement. In such cases, there are three alternatives for construction on such weak soils, including: (a) Use of pile foundations; (b) Soil replacement; and (c) Ground improvement . The purpose of ground improvement is to enhance the geotechnical engineering properties of soil by one of the following methods: Chemical treatment (e.g. lime, cement or flyash); Soil reinforcement (e.g. geosynthetics); and Soil consolidation (e.g. vertical drains with preloading) Soil compaction. In our course, only soil compaction will be studied in some detail.
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Definition and Use of Soil Compaction


Compaction is the packing of soil particles together to reduce the void ratio or increase soil density (or unit weight). Compaction is usually required for fill materials, and sometimes is used for natural soils. Soil can be compacted by adding a certain amount of water while a compactive effort is applied. In effect, water acts as a lubricant and allows soil particles to be packed together more easily. If, however, too much water is added, water starts to replace the soil particles (solids) and a lesser density results. There is a main difference between consolidation (which will be studied in the second semester) and compaction. Consolidation is the reduction of soil volume by the gradual expulsion of water from the voids under the action of a continuous static load, and it is usually occurred for fully saturated cohesive soils. Compaction, on the other hand, is the reduction of soil volume by the expulsion of air with little or no change in the water content. Compaction is extensively employed in many Geotechnical Engineering structures that need man-placed soil, or fill, such as: earth dams; embankments; backfill behind retaining walls; and base, subbase and subgrade of road construction.

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Objectives of Soil Compaction


The main objectives of soil compaction are: To increase soil shear strength, which reduces the potential for slope stability problems of landslides; prevents liquefaction during eaqrthquakes; and enhances soil bearing capacity for supporting loads of foundations; To reduce future settlements and compressibility under working loads; To decrease soil permeability, which makes water flow through soil more difficult; and To increase erosion resistance, which helps in maintaining the ground surface in a serviceable condition.

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Theory of Soil Compaction


Compaction is usually measured in terms of soil density, expressed as the dry unit weight, d, which is not particularly an important soil property, however, geotechnical engineers usually use d as a measure of soil quality that correlates with the soil shear strength, resistance to future settlements and permeability characteristics. There is a particular moisture content at which d is greatest and compaction is best. This moisture content is called the optimum moisture content, OMC, and the associated d is known as the maximum dry unit weight, dmax. For a certain soil, OMC and dmax are obtained by compacting the soil in the laboratory, then requiring the contractor to achieve some specified percentage of dmax in the field. The laboratory tests that are usually carried out include the standard Proctor test and modified Proctor test, which will be explained next. The dry unit weight achieved in the field is determined using several types of tests that will be explained later in this course.

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Laboratory Compaction Tests


Standard Proctor Test:
In this test, soil is compacted in a mould of 105 mm diameter and 115.5 mm height in 3 equal layers, each layer receives 25 blows from a hammer of 2.7 kg dropping a distance of 300 mm (Figure 1).

Handle

Mould extension Sleeve guide


105 mm 115.5 mm

Cylindrical Soil mould Compacting hammer Photo by ELE International

Base plate
50 mm

Figure 1: Compaction test apparatus


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The test procedures are as follows:


Five or more samples of the same soil, with different water contents, are compacted according to the compaction test specifications.

The first 4 blows

The successive blows

The bulk (total) unit weight, t, and the associated water content, mc, of each compacted sample are measured. The dry unit weight, d, of each sample is calculated from the known t and mc as follows:

d =

t
(1 + mc )

(1)

The dry unit weights are plotted versus water contents and the compaction curve is drawn from which dmax and OMC are obtained, as shown in Figure 2.
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dmax

OMC

Figure 2: Results of the laboratory compaction test

The compactive effort (energy) supplied in this test is 596 kJ/m3 and can be calculated as follows (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981): Energy = (weight of hammer drop height number of layers number of blows per layer) / (volume of mould) Energy = (2.7 kg 9.81 m/s2)(0.3 m)(3 layers)(25 blows/layer)/1000 10-6 m3 = 595957.5 J/m3 = 596 kJ/m3
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Modified Proctor Test:


In the early days of compaction, equipment used for construction were small and gave relatively low compaction densities, hence, a laboratory method that uses a small amount of compactive effort such as the standard Proctor test was required. Because of the benefits of compaction, contractors have built larger and heavier machines to increase the amount of compaction in many projects such as the construction of airports and roads. A laboratory procedure that can give higher densities than those of the standard Proctor test has become necessary and thus, the modified Proctor test was developed. The point is that increasing the compactive effort tends to increase the maximum dry unit weight and decrease the optimum water content required for compaction. Table 1 shows the main differences between the standard Proctor test and modified Proctor test. In the field, soil needs to be compacted by compaction techniques that can give an equivalent amount of energy to that used in the laboratory test.
Table 1: The main difference between the standard Proctor test and modified Proctor test Test Parameter 3 Mould volume (cm ) Mould Diameter (mm) Mould height (mm) Hammer diameter (mm) Drop height (mm) Hammer mass (kg) Number of layers Blows/layer 3 Energy (kJ/m )
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Standard Proctor 1000 105 115.5 50 300 2.7 3 25 596

Modified Proctor 1000 105 115.5 50 450 4.9 5 25 2703


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The following observations can be obtained from the compaction curve in Figure 2: Below the OMC (i.e. in the dry side of optimum), d increases as the water content increases. This is because the soil particles develop water films around them, which tend to lubricate the particles and make them easier to be reoriented into a denser configuration, thus, d increases. Above the OMC (i.e. in the wet side of optimum), d decreases with the increase of water content. This is because soil starts to be very wet and there is little or no air left in the voids and it thus becomes very difficult or impossible to compact the soil more. Also, as mentioned previously, at the wet side of optimum water starts to replace the soil particles in the mould, and since w < solids, d decreases. It is possible to calculate and superimpose the curves corresponding to different air contents or degrees of saturation into the compaction curve, as shown in Figure 3, from which the following two observations are derived:

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Figure 3(a) indicates that because of the random shape of solid particles, it is not physically possible to remove all the air content from within a volume of an unsaturated soil. Figure 3(b) shows that the OMC has been achieved at a degree of saturation, S, of less than 100% and this is true for most soils. In other words, it is not possible to achieve full saturation through compaction.

Av = 5% Av = 10%

(a)

S = 80% S = 70%

(b)

Figure 3: Compaction at different degrees of: (a) air voids; (b) saturation
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The calculation of the air content, Av, can be determined as follows:


d =
Gs w (1 Av ) 1 + mc Gs
(2)

The derivation of Equation 2 is as follows:


Av (%) = (V + Vw ) Va Vt (Vs + Vw ) = = 1 s Vt Vt Vt

(1 Av ) =

(Vs + Vw ) Vt

Vt =

(Vs + Vw ) (1 Av )

d =
Vs =

t
(1 + mc )

(Ws + Ww ) (Ws + Ww )(1 Av ) = Vt (1 + mc ) (Vs + Vw )(1 + mc )


and

Ws Gs w

Vw =

Ww

mcWs

d =

(Ws + Ww )(1 Av ) G (W + Ww )(1 Av ) Gs w (Ws + Ww )(1 Av ) Gs w = s w s = = (1 Av ) Ww Ws mcWs ( )(1 + m) Ws (1 + m c Gs )(1 + mc ) + (1 + mc Gs )(Ws + Ws ) 1 + mc Gs w Ws Gs w


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Geotechnical Engineering 367 Dr Mohamed Shahin

Alternatively, the degree of saturation, S, can be calculated as follows:

Gs w d = mG 1+ c s S

(3)

The relationship between Av and S is as follows:

S=

1 Av A 1+ v mc Gs

(4)

As can be seen from Equation (4), S + Av 100.

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Worked Example (1)


A standard Proctor test was conducted on a soil sample of Gs = 2.65 gave the results shown in the table below.
Water content (%) Mass of compacted soil + mould (gm) 7.7 2891 11.5 3071 13.5 3152 16.0 3185 18.2 3138 20.2 3100

If the mould used has a mass of 1152 gm and volume of 950 cm3, determine the following: (i) Draw the compaction curve and obtain the OMC and dmax; (ii) Draw the 80% and 100% saturation lines; and (iii) Calculate the degree of saturation at the maximum dry unit weight.

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Factors Affecting Compaction of Cohesionless Soils


The two major soil type groups, cohesionless and cohesive, react differently to the compaction process and thus will be discussed separately. Cohesionless soils are coarse-grained soils which mainly composed of sands and gravels. The main factors affecting the compaction of cohesionless soils are:
Soil gradation; Magnitude of compactive effort; and Water content.

The above factors are discussed in some detail next.

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Effect of soil gradation on compaction of cohesionless soils:


It can be seen from Figure 4 that the shape and position of the compaction curve varies as soil gradation changes from well-graded to poorly-graded. It is to be said that well-graded cohesionless soils can be compacted to a higher density than poorly-graded cohesionless soils.
22
Poorly-graded sand/gravel

21

Well-graded sand/gravel

Dry unit weight (kN/m 3)

20

19

18

17

16 5 10 15 Moisture content (%) 20

Figure 4: Effect of soil gradation on the compaction of cohesionless soils


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Effect of compactive effort on compaction of cohesionless soils:


It can be seen from Figure 5 that increasing the compactive effort enables greater maximum unit weight to be achieved at lower optimum moisture content. It can also be seen that if the soil is compacted at the wet side of optimum, the use of heavier compaction machinery will have a small impact on increasing soil dry unit weight. Also, it is to be noted that the compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic as it depends on the compactive effort used. In other word, for each test in Figure 5, dmax is the greatest dry unit weight achieved for that level of compactive effort. Consequently, it is important when giving the values of OMC and dmax to specify the type of test used in the laboratory, i.e. whether it is standard Proctor test or modified Proctor test.
Dry unit weight

Increasing compactive effort

Moisture content
Figure 5: Effect of compactive effort on soil compaction
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Effect of water content on compaction of cohesionless soils:


The effect of moisture content on compaction has been explained previously. As water is added to a soil during compaction, it becomes easier for the soil particles to slip over one another and to move into a densely packed position (i.e. greater densification can be achieved at the same compactive effort). As the soil compacts, the voids are reduced and the dry unit weight increases with the increase of moisture content up to its maximum value, dmax. Beyond the optimum moisture content, any increase in water tends to reduce the dry unit weight, as water starts to replace the solid particles in occupying the available voids, as explained earlier. It should be noted that, for cohesionless soils of high permeability such as clean sands and gravels of no fines, experimental evidence indicates that the moisture content is not a significant criterion in compaction and the choice of the compaction equipment (i.e. magnitude of compactive effort) has more impact on the dry unit weight. For these type of soils, the compaction curves would be relatively flat so density can be achieved regardless of water content.

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Factors Affecting Compaction of Cohesive Soils


Cohesive soils are fine-grained soils which mainly composed of clays that are sticky when wet. The main factors affecting compaction of cohesive soils are:
Magnitude of compactive effort; Water content; Soil structure; Soil permeability; Soil strength; and Soil swelling and shrinking.

The effects of magnitude of compactive effort and water content on compaction of cohesive soils are similar to those of cohesionless soils. The effects of other factors will be discussed in some detail next.

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Effect of soil structure on compaction of cohesive soils:


Cohesive soil particles exist mainly as flakes rather than in a roughly spherical shape. Because of the electrical charges imparted among soil particles, most cohesive soils tend to exist in a highly disorganised order (random orientation), or flocculated structure. A cohesive soil tends to keep its flocculated structure if compacted in the dry side of optimum (point A in Figure 6), however, if compacted in the wet side of optimum, soil structure becomes more oriented in a parallel form (point C). Furthermore, with increasing the compactive effort, regardless of whether soil is compacted in the dry side or wet side of optimum, cohesive soils tend to become more oriented (A to E and C to D).

Figure 6: Effect of compaction on soil structure (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)


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Effect of soil permeability on compaction of cohesive soils:


As mentioned previously, cohesive soils have a flocculated structure when compacted in the dry side of optimum, consequently they tend to be more permeable (they pass water more easily) if compacted dry of optimum. Figure 7 shows that permeability decreases with the increase of water content until it reaches a minimum value at the OMC, then it increases very slightly.

Figure 7: Effect of compaction on soil permeability (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)


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Effect of soil strength on compaction of cohesive soils:


Cohesive soils compacted in the dry side of optimum tend to be more stronger (have higher strengths) than those compacted in the wet side of optimum (see Figure 8). At the dry side of optimum, soil particles are surrounded by films of water which work as lubricant and cause soil grains to pack properly, thus soil strength is increased. At the wet side of optimum, the water content is high and compaction loads tend to increase the internal pore water pressures which tend to push the grains apart and hence reducing soil strength.
Figure 8: Effect of compaction on soil strength (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
(a)

(b)

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Effect of swelling/shrinking on compaction of cohesive soils:


Cohesive soils having a flocculated structure exhibit higher potential for swelling or shrinking. Consequently, swelling/shrinking of compacted cohesive soils is greater when compacted in the dry side of optimum, as it has a relatively greater deficiency of water and greater tendency to absorb water, thus, swell/shrink more (Figure 9).

Dry unit weight

Higher swelling/shrinking

Lower swelling/shrinking

Moisture content Figure 9: Effect of compaction on swelling/shrinking of cohesive soils

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From the study of the factors affecting compaction of cohesive soils, it is important to keep in mind that successful compaction is achieved when the desired engineering properties of the compacted soil is obtained, not just the maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content. For example, compaction in the dry side of optimum is more appropriate for construction of foundations because it will increase the strength and bearing capacity of compacted soil, whereas compaction in the wet side of optimum is more favourable for the construction of seepage barriers (e.g. earth dams) because the compacted soil will be less permeable.

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Specifications of Field Compaction


The soil to be used as a compacted fill is excavated from the borrow area using scrapers and is transported to the fill area using trucks. Once the borrow material has been transported to the fill area, bulldozers or graders spread the material to the lift thickness. Soil is normally compacted in layers of a lift thickness of usually 200 mm that is to be compacted to about 150 mm. Unless the borrow material is within the desired water content, soil may need to be wetted or dried. Wetting can be done by sprinkling water over the soil and thoroughly mixing the soil and water together. Drying can be achieved by aeration, i.e. turning the soil and spreading it in the sun. As the construction of earthworks proceeds, the contractor is asked to achieve a compacted field dry unit weight,dfield, of not less than a certain percentage of the maximum dry unit weight obtained from the laboratory test, dmax-lab. This specification is called the relative compaction, RC, and can be expressed as:

RC =

dfield d max lab

100

(5)

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As an example of using Equation (5), if a certain soil has dmax-lab of 18 kN/m3 and the project specifications require RC 90%, then the contractor must compact the soil in the field to d-field 16.2 kN/m3. The field dry unit weight, d-field, is determined for each layer of the compacted fill while compaction is progressing. The determination of d-field will be discussed later. Table 2 shows the typical requirements of RC for some projects (Coduto, 1999).
Table 2: Typical compaction specifications

Type of project Fills to support buildings or roadways Upper 150 mm of subgrade below roadways Aggregate base material below roadways Earth dams

Minimum required RC 90% 95% 95% 100%

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As mentioned previously, compaction of cohesionless soils of clean sands and gravels is not limited by the moisture content and the specifications are sometimes written in terms of the relative density, Dr, as follows: d field d min lab ) d max lab (emax lab e field ) Dr = (6) Dr = or d max lab d min lab ) d field (emax lab emin lab ) The minimum laboratory dry unit weight , dmin-lab, that gives the maximum void ratio, emax-lab, can be obtained by filling a mould of known volume with dry soil using a funnel, in a steady stream, free of vibration. After levelling the soil, the mass of the mould and its contents is measured, then the dry unit weight is calculated which would be the minimum dry unit weight, dmin-lab. The laboratory maximum dry unit weight, dmax-lab, that gives the minimum void ratio, emax-lab, can be determined using the vibratory table (Figure 10), in which a mould of known volume is filled with wet soil using a scoop while the table is oscillating at a nominated rate (e.g. 3600 vibrations/minute). A surcharge load is lowered to the surface of the soil and the vibrator is set for about 10 minutes or until no more soil settlement is occurred. The surcharge load is removed and the soil is levelled. The content of the mould is placed in an oven for 24 hours at 105oC. The maximum dry unit weight, dmax-lab, is then calculated by dividing the dry mass of soil by the volume of mould.
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Figure 10: Compaction by vibratory table (Aysen, 2005)

The following ranges of Dr can be used to measure the quality of compaction: Very loose : 0 < Dr < 0.15; Loose : 0.15 < Dr < 0.35; Medium dense : 0.35 < Dr < 0.65; Dense : 0.65 < Dr < 0.85; Very dense : 0.85 < Dr < 1.00 The relationship between RC and Dr can be obtained using Lee and Singh (1971), as follows: RC = 0.8 + 0.2Dr (7)

It should be noted that although RC and Dr measure similar soil properties, they are numerically different. Some engineers/contractors incorrectly use the term relative density to describe the relative compaction. This is often a source of confusion, so it is important to be careful when using these terms.
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Bulking and Shrinkage in Soil Compaction


When soil is excavated from one area (cut or borrow area), transported and then compacted in another area (compacted fill area), it will swell (increase in volume) during excavation and shrink (reduce in volume) during compaction, as illustrated by the schematic diagram in Figure 11. The change in volume due to excavation is called bulking. Sands and gravels have about 10% bulking, while silts and clays usually have about 30-40%. The contractor should consider the amount of volume increase due to bulking because it means more truck loads are needed to transport a given volume of cut soil per day.

Cut area (borrow)

Bulking

Transportation

Compaction

Fill area

Figure 11: Changes in volume as soil is excavated, transported and compacted

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The net change in volume from the cut soil to the compacted fill is called shrinkage factor and may be calculated as follows:
V d fill = 1 V fill d cut
(8)

where; V = net change in volume from the cut soil to the compacted fill; Vfill = volume of compacted fill; dfill = dry unit weight of compacted fill; and dcut = dry unit weight of cut soil. It should be noted that the volume or weight of dry soil (i.e. solids or soil particles) of the cut material and compacted fill are the same.

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Worked Example (2)


A soil deposit has an average dry unit weight of 16.02 kN/m3 and moisture content of 10% is to be used for construction of an embankment of volume 76,455 m3. The compacted soil of the embankment will have a dry unit weight of 18.42 kN/m3. Determine the volume and weight of soil that need to be excavated from the cut area to construct the embankment. [Answers: 87,909 m3 and 157,913 tonnes]

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Determination of Field Dry Unit Weight


The field dry unit weight, d-field, can be determined by knowing the field water content, mc-field, and field bulk (total) unit weight, t-field, and applying the following equation: d-field = t-field/(1+mc-field) (9) The field moisture content is usually measured by taking a sample of the compacted soil to the laboratory, or by the in-situ quick determination using the nuclear radiation or speedy moisture tester. The field bulk unit weight can be determined by excavating a sample of compacted material and measuring its in-situ total weight and volume, from which the in-situ bulk unit weight is calculated by dividing the sample total weight by its volume. Measuring the total weight of an excavated soil sample in the field is simple enough, but the accurate determination of its volume is critical and can be obtained using a number of techniques, as follows: Sand replacement method; Rubber balloon method; and Water (or oil) replacement method. The above techniques are explained in some detail next.
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Sand replacement (or sand cone) method:


1. Prepare a level surface in the fill and dig a cylindrical hole of about 125 mm in diameter and 125 mm deep. Save the soil that comes out of the hole and determine its weight Wt-field. 2. Fill the jar of the sand cone apparatus with a calibrated sand of known unit weight, sand, and determine the weight of (sand + cone apparatus), W1. 3. Place the sand cone over the hole, as shown in Figure 12, then open the valve to allow the sand to fill the hole and cone (the volume of the cone, Vcone, is known). 4. Close the valve and determine the new weight of (sand + cone apparatus), W2. The total volume of soil, Vt-filed, and total unit weight of the compacted fill, t-field, can then be calculated as follows: W W2 Vt field = Vsand Vcone = 1 Vcone sand (10)

t field = Wt field / Vt field

(11)

5. d-field can then be calculated using Equation (9).


Figure 12: Sand cone apparatus (after Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

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Rubber balloon method:


This method is similar to the sand replacement method except that the volume is determined directly by the expansion of a rubber balloon filled with water and introduced directly into the hole, see Figure 13.

Figure 13: Balloon method for measuring in-situ dry density (after Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Water (or oil) replacement method:


This method employs an impermeable plastic sheet which is placed inside the hole, and is then filled with oil, or water, of known density, as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Oil method for measuring in-situ dry density (after Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

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A number of techniques exist that enable the direct determination of the bulk unit weight of compacted soil in the field, including: Nuclear densometer method; The penetration needle; and Core-cutter method.

The above techniques are explained next.

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Nuclear method:
This method involves a gamma radiation source which is located at the end of a probe that is placed in the compacted soil at a known depth. Detectors located within the instrument monitor the amount of scatter of radiation from the source. The scatter is related to the bulk unit weight of the material, and the moisture content can be also determined, see Figure 15.

Figure 15: Nuclear method for measuring in-situ dry unit weight (after Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

The penetration needle:


This apparatus (see Figure 16) consists of a needle attached to a spring loaded plunger with an array of interchangeable needle tips. A calibration curve of penetration resistance in kN/m2 is obtained in the laboratory by pushing the needle into specially prepared sample at different moisture contents and the corresponding unit weights. In the field, the needle is forced into the soil and its resistance is determined, the moisture content and unit weight are read from the laboratory calibration curve.
Figure 16: The penetration needle (Nikraz, 2005)
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Core-cutter method:
This technique is to drive a tube into the soil (see Figure 17), usually a cohesive material, which is later extruded in the laboratory. The dimensions of the sample, diameter and length, can be measured (giving the in-situ volume), as well as the weight, yielding the bulk unit weight.

Figure 17: The core-cutter (Nikraz, 2005)

Note: Typical specifications require a new field test of dry unit weight for every 1000 to 3000 m3, or when the borrow material changes significantly.

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Field Compaction Equipment


Compaction is carried out in the field by applying one of the four methods: static pressure (using rollers); dynamic impact (using dropping weights); vibration or shaking; and kneading. A number of mechanical equipment can be used for soil compaction, including: 1. 2. 3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. 10. Static drum rollers; Vibrating drum rollers; Rubber-tyred rollers; Sheepsfoot rollers; Tamping foot rollers; Grid or mesh rollers; Vibrating plates and rammers; Impact rollers; Dynamic compaction; and Vibrocompaction or vibroflotation.

The above equipment and their functions are described next.

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Static Drum Roller


Smooth steel-wheeled vehicle of mass of 3-18 tonnes 100% coverage under the wheel Static compactive effort Suitable for well-graded sands and gravels; and crushed rocks Used for compaction of base courses; and asphalt pavement

(photo by Caterpillar)

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Vibrating Drum Roller


Similar to the static drum roller except that the drum is fitted with a vibration mechanism Suitable for most soil types especially granular soils Static compactive effort and impact forces and vibration

(photo by Broons Hire Pty Ltd)

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Rubber-tyred Roller
Two-axles roller that employs from 7-13 wheels mounted in two rows and spaced so that the wheels of the front row track in the spaces between those of the back row 80% coverage under the wheel Suitable for most coarse-grained soils with some fines Static compactive effort and kneading Used for compaction of subgrades, highway fills; and earth dams
(photo by Caterpillar)

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Sheepsfoot Roller
Has many round or rectangular feet attached to one or two hollow steel drums 8% to 12% coverage under the wheel Static compactive effort and kneading Suitable for fine-grained soils Used for compaction of embankments and earth dams

(photo by Europe-machinery)

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Tamping-foot Roller
Has many tamping feet attached to one or two hollow steel drums 40% coverage under the wheel Static compactive effort and kneading Suitable for fine-grained soils; sands and gravels with fines > 20% Used for compaction of subgrades; embankments; and earth dams

(photo by Caterpillar)

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Grid (or Mesh) Roller


Towed grid roller consists of two drums constructed of open mesh having openings about 100 mm square 50% coverage under the wheel Static compactive effort and vibration Suitable for well-graded sands and gravels; and soft rocks Used for compaction of subbase courses and subgrades

(photo by Broons Hire Pty Ltd)

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Vibrating Plates and Rammers


Manually operated devices which are usually petrol-driven. Vibrating plate is suitable for coarse soils that contains some fines, and vibrating rammer is suitable for all types of soils Static compactive effort and impact forces and vibration Used for compaction of trench backfill and small areas where access is difficult

Vibrating plate

Vibrating rammer

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Impact Roller
Has gained much use recently. The impact roller is a square or triangle roller with rounded corners that when towed behind a vehicle, compacts the soil by the action of the falling weight of the roller. Static compactive effort and impact forces Suitable for most soil types Used for compaction of large reclamation projects as it is efficient and cost effective.

(square impact roller: photo by Broons Pty. Ltd.)

(triangle roller: photo by Infratech Pty. Ltd.)


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Dynamic Compaction
Has been employed for the compaction of large areas Consists of repeatedly dropping a very heavy weight (usually between 10200 tonnes) dropped from a height of up to 40 metres by means of massive cranes The impact produces shock waves that cause densification Suitable for unsaturated granular soils Used for compaction of large areas

(photo by DGI-Menard, Inc.)

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Vibrocompaction or Vibroflotation
This method employs a giant cylindrical vibrator that is suspended from a crane. The vibration from the vibrator liquefies the soil and causes immediate settlement. Water is pumped (jetted) through the vibrator to aid the compaction process and to permit penetration of the vibrator up to 15 metres in depth. Suitable for loose sands where water in the voids is free to drain and will not affect compaction. Used for compaction of sand deposits for depths up to 30 m, and can also be used below water table.

(Das, 1998)

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Summary of Field Compaction Equipment


Equipment
Smooth wheel (drum) rollers (static or vibrating) Pneumatic (rubber-tyred) rollers Sheepsfoot rollers Tamping foot rollers Grid (mesh) rollers Vibrating drum rollers Vibrating plates and rammers Impact rollers Dynamic compaction Vibrocompaction/vibroflotation

Most suitable soils


Well-graded sands and gravels; crushed rock Most coarse-grained soils with some fines Fine-grained soils Fine-grained soils; sands and gravels with fines > 20% Well-graded sands and gravels; soft rocks Most soil types especially granular soils Coarse soils with 4-8% (for plates); all soil types (for rammers) Most soil types Unsaturated granular soils Loose sands

Typical application
Base courses; asphalt pavement Subgrades; highway fills; earth dams Earth dams; embankments Earth dams; embankments; subgrades Subbase courses; subgardes Embankments; subgrades Trench backfills; difficult access areas Large reclamation areas Compaction of large areas Free-draining sand deposits of depths up to 30 m

Note: For most compaction projects, the minimum recommended number of passes to compact a single lift of soil is 4-8.
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References
Aysen, A. (2005). Soil mechanics: basic concepts and engineering applications, Balkema Publishers, London. Coduto, D. P. (1999). Geotechnical engineering: Principles and practices, Prentice Hall, NJ. Das, B. (1998). Principles of geotechnical engineering, PWS Publishing Company, Boston, MA. Holtz, R., and Kovacs, W. (1981). An introduction to geotechnical engineering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Lee, K. W., and Singh, A. (1971). Relative density and relative compaction Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, 97(SM2), 1049-1052. Nikraz, H. (2005). Geotechnical engineering 268, BS 1737, Curtin University of Technology, Perth.

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