CHAPTER 5: LIGHT 5.1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT Light is a form energy that enables us to see.

Light is emitted or given by hot objects, like a candle flame, or the glowing filament of light bulb, or the sun. An object which produces its own light is said to be luminous. Most of the objects we can see do not produce their own light they are non-luminous. What we can see is the light is reflected off them. Light seems to travel in straight lines. When rays of light strike any surface the rays are reflected, unless the surface is black, when they are absorbed. The reflection depends on how smooth the surfaces are. Good mirrors reflect almost 90% of the light that reaches them, with only a small amount being absorbed. The surfaces of most objects are very irregular/rough/matt. Light hitting this sort of surface is scattered randomly in all directions. This is called diffuse reflection. On the other hand, the surface of a polished sheet of glass or metal can be made extremely smooth and flat. The reflection from this is regular. The reflected rays are parallel to each other. For a plane wave, the wave fronts are flat surfaces, and the rays are parallel to each other

Common terminology of reflection of light on a plane mirror a. Normal: A line at right angles to the mirrors surface. b. Incident ray: A ray of light that is directed onto the mirrors surface. c. Reflected ray: A ray that is reflected by the mirrors surface. d. Angle of incidence : The angle between the incidence ray and the normal e. Angle of reflection : The angle between the reflected ray and the normal AO =Incident ray ON = Normal OB = Reflected ray i = Angle of incidence r =Angle of reflection

Law of Reflection The reflected angle is always the same as the incident angle. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal line at the point of

incidence are in the same plane.

Characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror: Size Direction Type Distance

Same Upright, laterally inverted Virtual Distance of an image from the plane mirror is the same as the distance of the object from the mirror

Examples:

A B In diagram A, the persons right hand becomes the images left hand when viewed in a plane mirror. In diagram B, many emergency vehicles are reverse-lettered so that the lettering appears normal when viewed through the rearview mirror. RAY DIAGRAMS FOR PLANE MIRROR-Virtual Image Although the rays of light seems to come from the image, it is evident from diagram (b) that they do not originate from behind the plane mirror where the image appears to be. Because all of the rays of lights do not actually emanate from the image, it is called virtual image.

RAY DIAGRAMS FOR PLANE MIRROR- object distance and image distance The ray of light leaves the base of the object, strikes the mirror at an angle of incidence, and is reflected at the same angle . To the eye, this ray appears to come from the base of image. For the angles 1 and 2 in the drawing it follows that +1 =+2 =90 but angle = angle of reflection, since the two opposite angles formed by the intersection lines. Therefore 1 = 2 As a result, triangles ABC and DBC are identical triangles(congruent) because they share the a common side BC and have equal angles at the top and equal angles (90) at the base. Thus the object distance d0 = di

Rays Diagrams for Plane Mirror

Example 2: 1. Draw two normals at the surface of the mirror. 2. Draw two incident rays and each of them is directed to the normal. 3. Measure the angles of incidence respectively by using protractor. 4. By using the Laws of reflection (The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ), draw two reflected rays in front the mirror. 5. Extrapolate the reflected rays behind the dotted line. The point of intersection is the location of the image. Solution:

* refer to [Ray diagrams for Plane Mirror]

Example 2:

Example 3:

RAY DIAGRAMS FOR PLANE MIRROR-Full Length versus Half-Length Mirror The mirror is labeled as ABCD in the drawing and is the same height as woman. Light emanating from her body is reflected by the mirror and some of this light enters her eyes. Consider a ray of light from her foot, F. This ray strikes the mirror at B and enters her eyes at E. According to Law of Reflection, the angle of incidence and reflection are both . Any light from her foot that strikes the mirror below B is reflected towards a point on her body that is below her eyes. Since light strikes the mirror below B does not enter her eyes, the part of the mirror between B and A may be removed. The section BC of the mirror that produces the image is one-half the womans height between F and E. This follows because the right triangles FBM and EBM are identical. They are identical because they share a common side BM and have two angles , and 90 , that are the same. Starting from womans head at H. This ray is reflected from the mirror at P and enters her eyes. The top mirror section PD can be removed without disturbing this reflection. The necessary section CP is one-half the womans height between her head at H and her eyes at E Only section BC and CP are needed for the woman to see her full height. The height of section BC and CP is exactly one-half the womans height. Thus to view ones full length in a mirror, only a half-length mirror is needed. This conclusion valid regardless of how far the person stands from the mirror.

Common terminology of curved mirrors: Centre of curvature, C Pole of mirror, P Principal axis Radius of curvature, r (=CP) Principal focus, F The geometric centre of a hollow sphere of which the concave or convex mirror is a part The centre point on the curved mirror A line which passes through the centre of curvature, C and the pole of a curved mirror, P Distance between the pole, P and the centre of curvature, C A point through which all rays traveling parallel to the principal axis converge to or appear to diverge from after reflection by the mirror Focal length, f The distance between the principal focus, F and the pole of the curved mirror, P Aperture of mirror The portion of the surface of the mirror that reflects light Object distance, u Distance of object from the pole of the mirror, P Image distance, v Distance of image from the pole of the mirror, P For both concave and convex mirrors, the focal length is half the radius; i.e. CF = FP. Concave mirror Convex mirror

Rays traveling parallel to the principal axis converge to a point, called the real principal focus, on the principal axis.

Rays traveling parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge from a point behind the mirror which lies on the principal axis, called the virtual principal axis. Focal lengths are written in negative. E.g. f = -20cm.

Focal lengths are written in positive. E.g. f = +20cm.

Relationship between f and r r =2f

Relationship between curvature of mirror and f The more curved the mirror , the shorter its focal length,f.

Determining the Position and Characteristics of an Image with a Ray Diagram

Convex

To determine the position and characteristics of an image using a ray diagram: 1. Draw rays emanating from the top of the object to the mirror, and using the guide in the table above, draw their reflected paths. Use any of the two of the rays in the above guide. 2. A point on the image is produced at the intersection of two rays originating from the point on the object. Images formed by a Concave Mirror Position of object Ray diagram Image Position Characteristics of image O between F and P(u < f) Behind the mirror Virtual, upright, magnified Uses: magnifying mirror, shaving mirror and make-up mirror

O at F( u=f)

At infinity

Virtual, upright, magnified Uses: reflector to produce parallel beams of light such as torchlight and spotlight

O between F and C (f < u<2f)

Away from C

Real, inverted, magnified

O at C (u=2f)

At C /2f

Real, Inverted, Same size Uses: Reflector in a projector

O beyond C (u > 2f)

Between C and F

Real, Inverted, Diminished

O at infinity

At F

Real, Inverted, Diminished Uses: View distant object in a reflecting telescope

Images formed by a Convex Mirror Position of object Anywhere in front of the mirror Ray diagram Characteristics of image Virtual, Upright, Diminished

Uses of the reflection of light Plane mirror 1. A mirror periscope can be built by mounting two plane mirrors in a cardboard tube. 2. A rear view mirror and a side mirror of a car in order to enable the driver see objects at the back and side of the car. 3. Plane mirror acts as an anti-parallax error mirror in electrical instruments such as the voltmeter and the ammeter. Concave mirror 1. A shaving mirror or a make-up mirror uses a wide-aperture concave mirror with a large radius of curvature. (Image formed is virtual,upright and magnified) 2. A torchlight or a headlight of motor vehicles used concave parabolic mirror to produce a beam of parallel light rays. 3. A magnifying mirror uses a concave mirror to product upright and magnified image. Convex mirror 1. Convex mirror is used as Safety mirror is mounted at a sharp corner of a road so that the drivers are able to see oncoming cars on the blind side of the corner. Wide-angle view mirror are hung on the corner of ceilings in supermarkets to provide a wide field of view activities happening in the shopping area. Rear-view mirror in motor vehicles to give drivers as wide-angle view of the vehicles.

5.2 REFRACTION OF LIGHT Refraction of light is a phenomenon where the direction and speed of light are changed (change in velocity) when it crosses the boundary between two materials of different optical densities. Three ways in which a ray can travel through two mediums 1. When a ray of light travels from optically less dense medium to optically denser medium, the ray is bent towards the normal. After entering the denser medium the speed of light decreases. (incident angle > refracted angle)

2. When a ray of light travels from optically denser medium to optically less dense medium, the ray is bent away from the normal. After entering the less dense medium the speed of light increases. (refracted angle > incident angle)

3. When a ray of light crosses the boundary between two different mediums at a right angle or the incident ray parallel to normal, the ray is not bent but the speed of light is different. The angles of incidence and refraction are zero.

Common terminology of refraction of light between two medium of different optical densities

Normal =A line at right angles to the boundary of the surface of the medium. Incident ray =A ray of light that is directed onto to the boundary of the surface of the medium Reflected ray =A ray that is refracted when passing through the different medium. Angle of incidence = The angle between the incident ray and the normal Angle of refraction =The angle between the refracted ray and the normal

SUMMARY

The law of refraction When a light ray travels from one medium to another, 1. The incident ray and the refracted ray are on the opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence, and all three lie in the same plane. 2. The value of

is a constant(n2/n1) (Snells Law) where i is angle of incidence and r is angle of refraction.

Refractive index (n) Refractive index,n is defined as, where n = Refractive index i = the angle in vacuum/air r = the angle in denser medium The value of n must be greater than 1 A material with a higher refractive index has a greater bending effects and higher density. Note: A material with greater density may not necessarily have greater optical density. A light ray which travels through a medium with higher optical density will have its speed reduced. The refractive index can be also defined as ,

Difference between Snells law and Refractive index of a medium Snells Law Refractive index of a medium
=

is a constant or

n= True only when vaccum or air is involved. True only when light travels from a vacuum or air to the medium concerned.

True for any 2 mediums True only when the light travels from medium 1(n1) to medium 2(n2) or vice versa.

Vacuum/air

Examples: 1) a) The incident ray is in air, so 1 = 460 and n1 = 1.00. The refracted ray is in water, so n2 = 1.33. Calculate the angle of refracted ray, 2.
=

n1 sin i = n2 sin r n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 n2 sin 2 = n1 sin 1 sin 2 = n1 sin 1 = (1.00)(sin 46) = 0.54 n2 1.33
2 = sin -1 (0.54)=330 * When a ray of light is directed into water, part of the light will be reflected at the interface and the remainder will be refracted into the water. The refracted way is bent towards the normal (2 < 1) b) With the incident ray in water: sin 2 = n1 sin 1 = (1.33)(sin 46) = 0.96

n2
-1

1.00

2 = sin (0.96)=730

* When a ray of light is directed from water into air, the refracted ray in air is bent away from the normal (2 > 1) 2)

Can use n=

sin1 = n sin2 = (1.33)( sin 31) = 0.69 1 = sin-1 0.69 = 440

3)

4)

Actual depth and apparent depth

Examples:

a)

Calculate the refractive index of the block X. angle . Refractive index of glass =

b) Determine 1.54

the value of the

c) The speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 108 ms-1 and the speed of light in glass is 2 x 108 ms-1. Determine the refractive index of glass. d) The apparent depth of a fish is 0.50 m. Calculate the real depth of the fish. [ Refractive index of water = 1.33) e) The figure shows a man observing the base of a swimming pool. The base of the pool appears to be shallower. The real depth of the swimming pool is 2.0 m. [Refractive index of water = 1.33] i)What is the apparent depth of the swimming pool?

ii) In figure above, draw a ray diagram from point Z to show how the point Z appears shallower.

f)

S ITUATION WH E RE

IS USE D

DISP LACE ME NT OF LIGH T BY A TRANSP ARANT SLAB OF MATE RIAL

Experiments: A) Experiment to investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction.

Inference: the angle of incidence influences the angle of refraction

Hypothesis: The angle of refraction increases as the angle of incidence increases. Aim of the experiment: To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction Variables in the experiment: Manipulated variable: Angle of incidence Responding variable: Angle of refraction Fixed variable: Refractive index List of apparatus and materials: Glass block, ray box, white paper , protractor, power supply . Arrangement of the apparatus:

The procudere of the experiment which include the method of controlling the manipulated variable and the method of measuring the responding variable.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

The glass block is placed on a white paper. The outline of the sides of the glass block are traced on the white paper and labeled as ABCD. The glass block is removed. The normal ON is drawn. By using a protractor , the angle of incidence is measured = i ,300 The glass block is replaced again on its outline on the paper. A ray of light from the ray box is directed along incidence line. The ray emerging from the side CD is drawn as line PQ. The glass block is removed again. The point O and P is joined and is drawn as line OP The value of r is measured and recorded. The experiment is repeated 4 times for the other angles of incidence 400,500,600 and 700. The values of i,r, sin i, sin r and n=sin i/sin r are tabulated. A graph of r against i and sin i against sin r are plotted.

Tabulate the data:

i/0 r/0 Sin i Sin r n=sin i/sin r

Analysis the data: Plot the graph Sin i against Sin r

B) Experiment to investigate the relationship between real depth and apparent depth. Inference: Real depth influences the apparent depth Hypothesis: The apparent depth increases as the real depth increases. Aim of the experiment: To investigate the relationship between apparent depth and the real depth Variables in the experiment: Manipulated variable: real depth Responding variable: apparent depth Fixed variable: Refractive index List of apparatus and materials: Pin, ruler, water, retort stand ,tall beaker Arrangement of the apparatus:

The procedure of the experiment which include the method of controlling the manipulated variable and the method of measuring the responding variable. 1. A pin is placed at the base of the beaker as object O. 2. The another pin is clamped horizontally onto the retort stand as image position indicator, I 3. The beaker is filled with water. 4. By using a ruler ,the real depth of the pin is measured = H ,8.0 cm 5. The pin O is seen vertically above the surface of the water. 6. The position of pin I is adjusted until parallax error between the pin O and the pin I is non- existent. 7. By using the ruler again ,the position of pin I is measured as the apparent depth = h 8. The experiment is repeated 4 times for the other value of H ,10.0,12.0,14.0 and 16.0 cm. 9. The values of H and h are tabulated and a graph pf H against h is plotted. Tabulate the data: H /cm h /cm Analysis the data: Plot the graph h against H 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0

5.3 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION Critical angle, c is the value of the incident angle when the refracted angle is 90. OR The angle of incidence in an optically more dense medium which results in angle of refraction of 90o in an optically less dense. (Refer to the diagram below)

Ray diagram to show how the Total Internal Reflection happen Total Internal reflection: A phenomenon when a light ray that is travelling between mediums is completely reflected at the boundary of the dense medium and the less dense medium.

less dense

More dense

a. Angle of incidence, i1 is small, Produces a strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray. b. Angle of incidence is increased as i2,produces a refracted ray and a reflected ray whose intensity has increased compared to the situation in (1)

c.

Angle of incidence is increased to the critical angle, c. Angle of refraction is 90 0 with respect to the normal.The refracted ray travels along the water-air boundary.

d. Angle of incidence, i3 > c. No refraction occurs. All the light rays are completely reflected within the water(more
dense)-air(less dense) boundary .Total internal reflection occurs. The conditions for the occurrence of total internal reflection 1. The light ray must be travel from an optically denser medium to less dense medium. 2. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle. Determine the relationship between Refractive index (n) and Critical angle (c) * consider that the incident ray travels from optically less dense medium to optically denser medium. The path of ray of light is reversed.

n=

Therefore, n=

Examples: a) Calculate the critical angle for (i) glass with refractive index, n=1.5 (ii) air with refractive index, n= 1.33. b) The diagram shows a light ray entering in a glass prism. [ Refractive index of glass = 1.51 ] (i)Determine the critical angle of the glass. (ii) Draw the ray light after it passes through a point P until the direction of the ray of light unchanged.

c) Figure shows a light ray AO travelling from medium X to the air. [The refractive index of medium X = 2.0] Draw the ray light after it passes through the point P when (a) = 25o (b) = 30o (c) = 35o

Experiment to determine the critical angle of glass

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

A semi-circular glass block is placed on a sheet of white paper. The outline of the glass block is traced onto the paper as ABC. The glass block is put aside. A normal ON is drawn. The glass block is placed again on its outline. A ray of light from the ray box is directed to glass block. The angle of incidence is increased until the refracted ray travels along the length of the air- glass boundary (refraction angle is 90o ). By using a protractor the angle of incidence is measured = c. The critical angle of the glass block = c .

Natural phenomena and Use of Total Internal Reflection. a)Mirages i) In the time when the weather is hot, the incidence ray from the sun passes through a dense air layer to a less dense air layer. ii) Finally, the light ray passes through the air layer close to the road surface at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle. iii) Total internal reflection occurs at this layer. The observer sees the image of the sky on the surface of the road as a pool of water.

b) Prism periscope

The periscope is built using two right angled prisms made of glass. The critical angle of the prism is 42o . The angle of incidence is 45o is greater than the critical angle. Total internal reflection occurs. The characteristics of the images are (i) Virtual (ii) Upright (iii) Same size as the object. Advantages of the prism periscope compared to mirror periscope, (i) The image is brighter (ii) No multiple images is formed (very clear)

c) Binocular
A ray light experiences two total internal reflections at each prism. The two prisms are to invert the image (upside down and right-to-left.) But the lenses in the binoculars also invert the image, so the prisms put it back the right way again. So the final image in binoculars is upright, not laterally inverted and magnified.

d) Fibre optice

The external wall of a fibre optic is less dense than the internal wall. When light rays travel from a denser internal wall to ales dense external walls at an angle that exceeds the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs. The advantages of the fibre optics are cheap, easily handled and more information can be transmitted.

e) rainbow f) fishs eye view g) sparkling diamonds

5.4 Lenses

A lens is a transparent material which consists of at least one curved surface. Images formed by lenses due to the phenomenon of refraction of light. Rays of light travelling through the optical centre pass through the lens in a straight line. Rays of light from objects at infinity ( distant objects) are parallel rays. Types of lenses (i) Convex lens @ Converging lens @ Positive lens (ii) Concave lens @ Diverging lens @ Negative lens

Common terminology of lenses

Optical centre , P Principal axis , AB Principal focus, F

A point which all rays travelling through this point pass through the lens in a straight line. A straight line which passes through the optical centre ,P at a right angles to the plane of the lens. A point on the principal axis to which incident rays of light travelling parallel to the principal axis, converge after refraction through a convex lens. OR A point on the principal axis from which incident rays of light travelling parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge after refraction through a concave lens. Distance of the object from the optical centre,P Distance of the image from the optical centre,P The distance between the principal focus ,F and the optical centre ,P.

Object distance , u Image distance , v Focal length,f Power of lenses (P) Power of a lens =

or

P=

or

The unit of power of a lens is Dioptre (D) or m-1 Convex lens: the power is taken to be positive Concave lens: the power is taken to be negative

Examples:

a) A convex lens of focal length 40 cm. Determine the power of the lens. b) A lens with a power 5D. Calculate the focal length of the lens and state the type of the lens?

Experiment to estimate the focal length of a convex lens

1. 2. 3. 4.

A convex lens is turned to face a distant object. The position of the screen is adjusted until a sharp inverted image is formed on the screen. The distance of the screen from the optical centre of the lens is measured = x The focal length of the lens = x . Experiment to estimate the power of a convex lens 1. A convex lens is turned to face a distant object. 2. The position nof the screen is adjusted until a sharp inverted image is formed on the screen. 3. The distance of the screen from the optical centre of the lens is measured = x . 4. The focal length of the lens = x .

5.

The power of the lens is determined by using the formula , Power of a lens =

To determine the characteristics of images formed by convex and concave lens by using ray diagrams Ray diagrams for Convex lens 1) A ray of light which passes through the optical centre of the lens is undeviated. 2) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis if refracted and passes through the principal focus,F 3) A ray of light which passes through the principal focus,F is refracted parallel to the principal axis. 4) The point of intersection of rays is a point on the image. The point on the image is on the side opposite the point on the object if the image is real.

Meaning of real image and virtual image A real image is one which can be cast on a screen; A virtual image is one which cannot be cast on a screen.

Ray diagrams for Concave lens 1) A ray of light which passes through the optical centre is undeviated. 2) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis is refracted and appears to come from the principal focus,F on the same side of the lens. 3) A ray of light which travels towards the principal focus,F on the other side of the lens is refracted parallel to the principal axis. 4) The point of intersection of the rays is a point on the image. The point on the image is on the same side as the point on the object and the image is virtual.

Image Characteristics: Virtual Upright Diminished To determine the characteristics of images formed by convex and concave lens by using lens equation

Lens Equation:

Linear magnification, m :

or

Where f = focal length ;u = object distance ;v = image distance ;m = linear magnification ;ho = object height ;hi = image height Sign Conventions Convex lens Always + + if the image is real(I mage is formed on the right side of the lens) ; - if the image is virtual (image is formed on the left side of the lens/same side as O) Always + Always + Size of image Image and object are the same size Enlarged image Diminished image Concave lens Always + - if the image is virtual

Object distance Image distance

Focal length,f Power ,P

Always Always -

Linear magnification,m I mI =1

I mI I mI
Examples:

>1 <1

a) An object of height 2 cm is placed at 30 cm from a convex lens of focal length 20.0 cm. What is (i)the image distance (ii) the linear magnification (iii) the image height (iv) the characteristics of the image ?

b) An object of height 6 cm is placed at 20 cm from a concave lens of power 2.5 D. What is (i)the image distance (ii) the linear magnification (iii) the image height (iv) the characteristics of the image ?

Experiment to investigate the relationship between the object distance,u and the image distance, v for a convex lens. Inference: Image distance depends on object distance Hypothesis: The image distance, v decreases as the object distance increases. Aim of the experiment: To investigate the relationship between the object distance,u and the image distance,v. Variables in the experiment: Manipulated variable: object distance,u Responding variable: image distance, v Fixed variable: focal length of the lens, f List of apparatus and materials: Convex lens, lens holder, white screen, cardboard with a cross-wire in a triangular cut-out , light bulbs and ruler Arrangement of the apparatus:

The procedure of the experiment which include the method of controlling the manipulated variable and the method of measuring the responding variable 1. The distance between the cardboard and the convex lens is measured by using a ruler, u = 20 cm. 2. The screen is moved back and forth until a sharp image is formed on it. 3. The distance between the screen and the lens ,v is measured by using metre rule and recorded. 4. The experiment is repeated 5 times for the other object distances, u=30 cm, 40 cm , 50 cm and 60 cm. Tabulate the data: 20 30 40 50 60 u /cm or Analysis the data: Plot the graph v v /cm or against u or Graph against

Gradient =

Experiment to investigate the relationship between the object distance, u and the height of image/magnification OR between the image distance ,v and the height of image/magnification Inference: Object distance OR Image distance influences the height of image / magnification. Hypothesis: As the height of image/magnification decreases, the object distance increases. OR As the height of image/ magnification increases, the image distance, v increases. Aim of the experiment: To investigate the relationship between the object distance, u and the height of image/magnification OR between the image distance ,v and the height of image/magnification. Variables in the experiment: Manipulated variable: object distance, u OR image distance, v Responding variable: height of image / magnification Fixed variable: focal length of the lens, f / height of object/ thickness of lens/ power of lens/ refractive index List of apparatus and materials: Convex lens, lens holder, white screen, cardboard with a cross-wire in a triangular cut-out, light bulbs and ruler Arrangement of the apparatus:

The procedure of the experiment which include the method of controlling the manipulated variable and the method of measuring the responding variable 1. The distance between the cardboard and the convex lens is measured by using a ruler, u = 20 cm .OR The distance between the screen and the convex lens is measured by using a ruler, v = 20 cm. 2. The screen is moved back and forth until a sharp image is formed on it. Or Adjust the object distance to get clear and sharp image on screen. 3. The height of image is measured by using metre rule and recorded/

The magnification is recorded by measuring the height of image /image distance and the value of is calculated and recorded. The experiment is repeated 5 times for the other object distances, u or image distance , v =30 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm and 60 cm. Tabulate the data: u /cm hi /cm 20 30 40 50 60 v /cm hi /cm 20 30 40 50 60 4.

u /cm m/cm

20

30

40

50

60

v /cm m/cm

20

30

40

50

60

Analysis the data: Plot graph of u/cm against hi /cm OR v/ cm against hi /cm OR u/cm against m/ cm OR v/cm against m/cm
Determination of the focal length by using graph method

(i) Graph

against

or vice versa

(ii) Graph u against v or vice versa

From the equation ,

and

u=v

iii) Graph m against v

(iv) Graph

against u

From the equation ,

and

v) Graph v against m

(vi) Graph u lawan

Gradient is f ; y-intercept is (0,f) SUMMARY OF COMPARISON OF IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics of convex mirrors are the same as concave lenses: Virtual, Upright, Diminished

Lens in Optical Device 1) Magnifying Glass (Simple Microscope)

a) It is convex lens of short focal length used to produce magnified images of small objects. b) An object is placed nearer than the focal length of the magnifying glass, a virtual, upright and magnified image is seen clearly. c) The magnifying power increases if the focal length of the lens is shorter. d) A sharper and larger image is seen at the near point of the eye. In general, the near point is taken as 25 cm. e) Magnification, M= image height, hI Object height, hO Or M= visual angle subtended by the image at the magnifying glass Visual angle subtended by the object at the unaided eye * Near point, D The shortest distance from the eye that can focus the image of an object on the retina The average value of the near point for an adult with normal vision =25cm * Far point The greatest distance from the eye that the image of an object can be focused on the retina. The far point of the normal eye is infinity.

2) Compound Microscope

To view very small of fine objects such as bacteria. Consists of two convex lenses of high power and short focal lengths as its a) objective lens (the lens nearer to the object),focal length f0 b) eyepiece lens (the lens nearer to the eye), focal length fe

Objective lens has the highest power as it has s shorter focal length as compared to the eyepiece ***** f0 < fe

The total distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece should be greater than (f0 + fe) The object is placed at a distance, u greater than f0 The first image I1 formed by the objective lens is real, inverted and magnified. The first image become the object for the eyepiece (magnifying lens),the eyepiece is adjusted so that the image I1 is positioned at a distance less than fe, hence the eyepiece can further magnify the image I1. The final image produces is virtual, inverted and magnified. In normal adjustment, the final image I2 is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, D= 25 cm from the eye piece to produce the highest magnification. M =height of image I2,h 2 = height of image I1, h x height of image I2 Height of object ,h0 original height of object, h0 height of image I1, h M = m0 x me ; m0 = magnification of the objective me = magnification of the eyepiece

3) Astronomical Telescope

To view distant objects such as planets and stars Consists of 2 convex lenses a) objective lens of low power with long focal length, f0 b) eyepiece lens of high power with short focal length, fe The distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece is equal to (f0 + fe)

F0 is coincident with Fe. Both lenses have the same focal plane. The objective lens converge parallel ray of light from a distant object to form an image I1 which is real, inverted and diminished at its focal point f0. The first image ,I1 becomes the object for the eyepiece. The eyepiece ( magnifying glass) is adjusted to produce a final image which is virtual, inverted and magnified. In normal adjustment, the final image is formed at infinity to produce the highest magnification. M = image height Object height M = focal length of the objective, f0 Focal length of the eyepiece, fe

COMPARISON BETWEEN ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE AND A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE Similarities: Consists of two convex lenses The first image is real, inverted and acts as the object for the eyepiece. The eyepiece acts as a magnifying lens The final image is virtual, inverted and magnified. Differences: Aspects Type of lens Compound microscope 2 high power convex lenses Astronomical telescope A low powered convex lens and a high power convex lens f0 > fe Diminished At infinity Equal to (f0 + fe) M =f0 fe Ciliary muscles are contracted. Eye is strained

Focal length Fist image Position of final image Distance between lenses Linear magnification ,M Condition of the eye when using the instrument

f0 < fe magnified At the near pint of the observers eye Greater than (f0 + fe) M = m 0 x me Ciliary muscles are at ease and the eye is relaxed

4) Camera

Consists of a) convex lens of constant focal length b) focusing ring/ screw c) diaphragm d) shutter e) light-sensitive photographic film (at the back of the camera)

The convex lens focuses images of the objects to be photographed onto the photographic film The focusing ring is used to move the lens to and fro so that real, inverted, diminished and sharp images of objects at various distances are focused on the film.(u >f) For the objects which are far, the film must be located at the principal focus, F of the lens, in order to obtain a clear photo. (For a distant object, u is at infinity, image will be formed on F ) For the objects which are closer, the image distance is greater than f. The focusing ring is adjusted to move the lens away from the film to produce sharp image on the film. (For a closer object, image distance ,f< v <2f, due to object distance is inversely proportional to image distance) When the button is pressed, the shutter opens to allow the light form the object to pass through the lens to film. The shutter controls the length of time of exposure. The intensity of light falling onto the film is controlled by a variable aperture diaphragm and a shutter. The diaphragm controls the diameter of the aperture. The photographic film is coated with silver halides. These salts can change chemically depend on the amount of light reaching them. When the film is developed and printed, a visible picture can be obtained. 5) Slide projector

Instrument for projecting on a screen an enlarged image of a transparent picture form a slide or movie film The concave mirror reflects light from a quart iodine lamp to a pair of condenser lenses. The condenser consists of 2 plano-convex lenses which are separated by a heat-filter (required to protect the slide or film from the heat of lamp). The 2 plano-convex lenses combine and converge the direct light form the lamp and reflected light from the concave mirror evenly onto the whole of slide or movie film to a projection lens. The slide or film which acts as object of the projection lens is at a distance between f and 2f from the projection lens. The projection lens is moved to and fro until a sharp image is focused on the screen. The slide must be placed in an inverted position (upside down) to form a real and upright image on the screen; the image on the screen is real, upright and magnified.