American Academy of Political and Social Science

Axis Domination in Central and Eastern Europe Author(s): Floyd A. Cave Source: Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 232, A Challenge to Peacemakers (Mar., 1944), pp. 116-125 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of Political and Social Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1023344 Accessed: 16/09/2008 11:08
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Axis Dominationin Centraland EasternEurope

By FLOYDA. CAVE

THE "new order" planned for Eu- functions as slaves of the Reich. Jews, rope by Germany and her satellites Poles, Russians, and other subject peoenvisaged a "Greater Germany" of con- ples who were classed as unworthy, obtinental proportions,with its central nu- stinate, or unable to adjust themselves, cleus in the Reich, surrounded by sub- were to be "liquidated." Even the jugated territories and peoples whose satellite nations must come to heel.3 political forms, cultural beliefs, habit POLITICAL REORGANIZATION patterns, and productive activities Territories regarded by the Nazis as would be totally subordinated to the uses of the German"master race." The essential to the economic and military techniques employed to achieve this defense of the Reich, and with populahave varied from place to place to suit tions capable of becoming fully Gerdifferent conditions, but over-all pur- manized, were annexed upon occupation. Thus Austria, the Sudetenland, poses have remained the same. German economic objectives, as stated western Poland, and northern Slovenia by Dr. Funk, include a maximum of were absorbed. Bohemia-Moravia was economic security for the Reich, and organized as a protectorate with the apthe highest possible standard of living parent ultimate purpose of annexation for the German people. To this end, to the Reich.4 In central Poland a Government-Genthe "lesser peoples" of Europe, particuthose in the central and eastern eral was established under a German larly areas, must be made to produce a maxi- Governor-Generalappointed by Hitler. mum of raw materials and foodstuffs to Serbia, Greece, and occupied Russia feed the German industrial machine.l were placed under military control, Nazis aimed at concentration of the while in Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, bulk of Europe's manufacturing facili- Slovakia, and Croatia, quisling governties within Germany proper, leaving to ments were established.5 This political reorganizationwas not peoples of peripheral lands of the east and south the role of agricultural serfs. without purpose. By it, Germany By this means, Germany expected to hoped to disunite her enemies, weaken preserve her superior economic position, their resistance, and render them more gain a monopoly over arms manufac- amenable to her ends. The policy of tures, and maximize her domination of "divide and rule" was followed in all of the Continent.2 this area. Thus Czechoslovakia was To achieve this large design, popula- partitioned among Germany, Poland, tions inhabiting the German "living and Hungary; Yugoslavia was split up space" were to be separated from exist- and the parts turned over to Germany, ing loyalties, properly indoctrinated, Hungary, and Italy; and Greece was and oriented towards their destined divided among Germany, Italy, and
Information Office, The Penetration of German Capital into Europe, 5 (New York, 1942), p. 3. 2 Ernest S. Hediger, "Nazi Economic Imperialism," Foreign Policy Reports, Vol. XVIII, No. 11 (Aug. 15, 1942), pp. 138-39. 116
1 United Nations
3 Rene Kraus, Europe in Revolt (New York: Macmillan, 1942), pp. 22-25. 4 Czechoslovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Four Fighting Years (London: Hutchinson & Co., Ltd., 1943), pp. 18-19. 5 "Europe: How Germany Rules It," Fortune, Vol. 24, No. 2 (Dec. 1941), p. 132.

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Bulgaria. In Poland, Bohemia-Moravia, and Slovenia, German settlers were brought in to form strips and islands in an attempt to split up and destroy national cohesion. Antagonism was promoted between local racial and religious groups to the same end.6 Where so-called independent governments were created, the Nazis saw to it that real control rested in their own hands. For example, in the Czech Protectorate, the Reich Protector makes sure that Hitler's orders are duly observed, confirmsor rejects appointments to the Czech Cabinet, issues decrees with the force of law, and has a veto on all Czech legislation. All foreign and military affairs, communications, posts and telephones, and customs are managed by the Reich. Czech economic life is controlled by a German Minister of Economics and Labor in the Czech Cabinet. Germanagents act as advisers of each Czech Cabinet minister.7 In Slovakia, German and Slovak officials exchange visits and consult together frequently. Here, also, German advisers have been placed in all departments of administration.8 In Croatia, in the absence of the Duke of Spoleto, who was named king by the Axis powers, Pavelic and his Ustashis have ruled the country, backed by German and Italian military units.9
6 Cf. "Europe: How Germany Rules It," Fortune, Vol. 24, No. 2 (Dec. 1941), p. 134; Polish White Book, German Occupation of Poland (New York: Greystone Press, 1941), p. 4; Joseph Clissold, The Slovenes Want to Live (New York: Yugoslav Information Center, 1942), pp. 29-30; and Embassy of U.S. S.R., Information Bulletin No. 53 (May 18, 1943), pp. 2-3. 7 Cf. Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 33-34, 36, 38; Czechoslovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Two Years of German Oppression in Czechoslovakia (London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1941), pp. 30-32. 8Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 141-47. 9 F. Melville, Balkan Racket (London: Jarrolds Publishers, 1942), pp. 85-86.

To make their political domination complete, the Nazis and Italians carried out extensive changes in local government also. New areas of administration were set up in Poland, Bohemia-Moravia, and Slovenia under the "leadership" principle. Local and city councils were disbanded or placed under German advisers. Civil servants who could not pass satisfactory examinations in German were dismissed, and all the important administrative positions were taken over by Nazis.10
REMODELING THE LAW AND THE COURTS

In Bohemia-Moravia, a dual citizenship and a dual system of courts were introduced. Czechs of German origin were made Reich citizens subject to German law and to German courts established in the Protectorate, while Czechs were made nationals of the Protectorate, subject to German law and courts in all matters affecting German interests in any way, and to Czech courts in matters pertaining solely to Czech affairs. The Reich Protector was given authority to cancel the decision of any Czech court and turn the case over to a German judge." In central Poland, much harsher discriminationwas invoked. Special courts were provided with power to deal summarily with all criminal cases where Reich interests were involved. Poles and Jews were made subject to German criminal law, and its extreme penalties were applied against them. Defense attorneys were refused to Poles and Jews, and sentences were to be immediately carried out. All provisions of Polish criminal law which lessened the harsh10 Cf. Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 36-38; Polish White Book, op. cit. n. 6, pp. 83-85; Boris Furlan, Fighting Yugoslavia (New York: Yugoslav Information Center, 1943), pp. 26-28. 11 Two Years of German Oppression in Czechoslovakia, op. cit. n. 7, pp. 37-40.

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ness of sentences were abrogated. Polish civil cases could be retried in German courts. The Polish Supreme Court and Labor Courts were suppressed.l2 By these and other provisions, people of German blood in the occupied territories were accorded the privileges of a ruling class, while the subject peoples were degraded to a status little short of slavery.
ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION

The Axis pattern of economic exploitation demonstrates employment of a standardized technique with variations in detail to meet local conditions. The record shows a deliberate and calculated design to squeeze the occupied territories dry of their accumulated wealth for Axis war purposes and to regiment the labor, the land, the raw materials, and the industrial plants of these nations in the long-time service of the Reich. The plans to accomplish this were worked out long before the present war.13 A highly efficient organization, the War Economy and Armament Board of the High Command of the Armed Forces, composed of specialists in economics, business, and engineering, sent representatives along with occupying troops to take over immediately all available wealth and to prevent sabotage.14

jectives was seizure of as much land as possible for Germancolonists, local Germans, or Germanized renegades. The usual practice was to confiscate first property of the Jews and political refugees. Czech and Polish state lands and forests were expropriated. In western Poland, the land of 1,500,000 peasants, who were expelled into central Poland, was seized and turned over, in part, to 500,000 German settlers. Mass expropriation of peasants' land is also being carried out in Slovenia, in the Baltic States, in Rumanianheld Bessarabia, and in the Germanoccupied Ukraine. All large private estates were confiscated in central Poland, as were also many peasant holdings. Lands left in the hands of peasants were subjected to strict supervision. Corporations were established in the various countries to distribute land to German settlers.16 CONTROL MONETARY OF SYSTEM The gold reserves and foreign exchange of Austrian and Czech national banks were taken immediately upon occupation. Banks were paid in script for the money.17 The Czechoslovak Government's hoard of gold, worth $6,000,000, held in trust by the Bank of England, was turned over to the Nazis upon demand, and confiscated.18 All Czech money in the Sudeten area
16 Cf. Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 40-42; Boris Furlan, op. cit. n. 10, pp. 19-20; U.S.S.R. Embassy, Information Bulletin No. 82 (Oct. 17, 1941), p. 8; No. 43 (April 24, 1943), p. 8; No. 84 (July 31, 1943), p. 1; Royal Institute of International Affairs, Europe under Hitler (London: Oxford University Press, 1941), p. 30. See also The Penetration of German Capital into Europe, op. cit. n. 1, and Ernest S. Hediger, op. cit. n. 2, p. 146. 17 Cf. Paul Einzig, Europe in Chains (New York: Allen Lane, Penguin Books, 1941), pp. 29-31; Ernest S. Hediger, "Nazi Exploitation of Occupied Europe," Foreign Policy Reports, Vol. XVIII, No. 6 (June 1, 1942), pp. 66-70. 18 Europe Under Hitler, op. cit. n. 16, p. 32.

Special agents of the Berlin Reichsbank also followed the troops, taking care of all financial transactions between the army and the natives, and paying for goods with fiat money.15 Under the policy of "blood and soil," one of the first of the Nazi economic obYork: G. P. Putnam'sSons), pp. 99 ff.
12 Polish White Book, op. cit. n. 6, pp. 9095. See also The Black Book of Poland (New

13 Stephen G. Xydis, The Economy and Finances of Greece under Axis Occupation, 19411942, Pittsburgh: Hermes Printing Co., 1943. 14 Ernest S. Hediger, op. cit. n. 2, pp. 67-69. 15 Ibid.

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was seized and used to purchase control of banks and industry in the Protectorate. The gold reserves of Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria were also added to the German hoard.19 In addition, military equipment of the armies of Czechoslovakia,Poland, Yugoslavia, and Greece was sold by the Germans and Italians, and the proceeds were used, along with the gold and foreign exchange, to finance the war or to buy up banks, mines, industries, and land.20 In addition to outright purchase of bank stocks with stolen money, Berlin banks brought pressure to compel payment on debts and frozen paper of banks in the victimized areas, thus forcing them to turn over control to the Nazis. All Jewish banks were "Aryanized" and taken over by German banks, or closed. Branch banks in the Sudeten and western Poland were seized and their assets confiscated. Central banks, therefore, were compelled to yield or close their doors. German and Italian banks already in the areas expanded their capitalization and absorbed the business of native banks forced to close. Through threats and persecution, many banks were forced to increase their voting stocks, which were then bought up with fiat money. Native banks were then compelled to accept this money. In most of the occupied countries, German "people's banks" were established to absorb the savings of the peasants. Withdrawals from bank deposits were strictly limited. Insurance companies with their vast stores of savings were also taken over by the Nazis.21 Some local variations are apparent. In annexed Poland, all Polish banks
E. S. Hediger, op. cit. n. 17, p. 71. Ibid., pp. 71-72. 21 Cf. The Penetration of German Capital into Europe, op. cit. n. 1, pp. 10, 11, 15, 17, 18-23; E. S. Hediger, "Nazi Economic Imperialism," op. cit. n. 2, pp. 140-42; Paul Einzig, op. cit. n. 17, pp. 37, 40, 51.
19 20

were confiscated and their business turned over to German banks. In the some Polish banks Government-General, were allowed to continue but are rapidly being absorbed. In Yugoslavia, all existing banks were liquidated and their business relinquished to German and Italian banks.22 In southern Greece, German and Italian banks divided the business. In the German-occupied Ukraine, all Soviet banks were confiscated. The Germans planned to set up "people's banks" there also. Two great German banking institutions, the Dresdener Bank and the Deutsche Bank, have established branches in all the countries of central and eastern Europe and, through them, have now gained what amounts to a monopoly of banking operations throughout the area.23 Not only were costs of occupation assessed against the vanquished out of proportion to actual costs, but special taxes and levies were exacted from them. In the Protectorate, Czechs were forced to pay a special tax on alcoholic beverages. German indirect taxes were applied to them. Revenues from Czech indirect taxes were seized. To top it all, a war contribution of f14,200,000 was levied upon the Protectorate. Similar treatment was meted out in Poland, and in addition, a 15 per cent surtax was imposed upon the incomes of all Polish workers.24 By lowering the exchange value of money in relation to the Reichsmark, the Nazis were able to buy up goods, lands, and factories at bargain prices,
22 The Penetration of German Capital into Europe, loc. cit. n. 21. 23 Cf. ibid., pp. 20, 25-28; Stephen G. Xydis, op. cit. n. 13, pp. 5, 21; Frank Munk, The Legacy of Nazism (New York: Macmillan, 1943), pp. 125 ff. 24 Cf. Europe Under Hitler, op. cit. n. 16, pp. 27-30; Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, p. 57; The Black Book of Poland, op. cit. n. 12, pp. 305-8.

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and force the victims to use more money poration, first active in Austria, began to buy the same amount of goods from operations. By it, all the principal the Reich. This was accomplished by mines and armament and steel works arbitrarily setting the exchange rate in in the Protectorate were taken over and a manner favorable to the Reich. One placed under German management. writer estimates that the Reichsmark Factories producing for civilian needs was overvalued in annexed Poland by were scrapped where "not needed," and 50 per cent, in central Poland by 35 the machineryshipped to Germany. All per cent, and in Slovakia by 19 per cent. business was brought to heel through In the Protectorate, he states, there was German control of raw materials and no change, but the price level was raised finances.26 The Goering Concern, which has by 30 per cent to achieve the same end. The Czech Foreign Office, however, as- spread itself over most of occupied Euserts that the Czech crown was devalued rope, was also active in annexed Poland, by 50 per cent. Banks of occupied but the principal work was done by countries were compelled to accept over- another corporation organized for the valued marks and issue local money at occasion, which seized all Polish industrial property and sold it to German the exchange rate.25 proprietors. In many cases, established EXPROPRIATION INDUSTRY OF German concerns absorbed Polish busiIn taking control over industry, tech- ness merely by increasing their stock niques similar to those used in seizing issues (on paper) and by this means the banks were employed, but, owing to "purchasing" the property. the large number of firms, these methIn central Poland, all large Polish ods were supplemented by others de- firms were taken over. Many small signed for the purpose. The aim here Polish concerns were liquidated and was to get control of key political and their business turned over to Germanbusiness organizationsso as to dominate sponsored monopolies.27 the whole of industry. In addition, Similar procedures were followed in mines and heavy industries were placed Yugoslavia. In the Ukraine, the Goerunder German control immediately. ing Concern concentrated mainly upon Thus, in Bohemia-Moravia, a German iron ore and mining deposits.28 was made Czech Minister of Economy In Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, and and Labor, including under his control, Greece, the Nazis, both through operatrade, commerce, industry, and public tions of their government and through works. The Czech Association of In- capital expansion of Germanfirms, have dustrialists was converted into a Ger- gained ascendancy particularly in raw man organization with a Nazi at the materials, mining, heavy industry, and head, its funds were seized and appro- chemicals.29 priated for German use, and member26 Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. ship was made compulsory for all Czech 58-63. businessmen. German representatives 27 Cf. Penetration German into were included on all industrial commit- Europe, op. cit. n. 1, of 19-20; Capital Paul Einzig, pp. tees. op. cit. n. 17, p. 53; Rene Kraus, op. cit. n. 3, The Goering Concern, a Nazi cor- p. 49; Frank Munk, op. cit. n. 23, pp. 143 ff.
pp. 35-36; Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 52-54.
25 Cf. Europe Under Hitler, op. cit. n. 16,

28 Penetration of German Capital into Europe, op. cit. n. 1, pp. 18-23. 29 Cf. loc. cit., pp. 25-30; and Rene Kraus, op. cit. n. 3, p. 62.

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CONTROL OVER FOODSTUFFS, RAW MATERIALS, AND MANUFACTURED GOODS

By strict rationing of occupied territories, Germany has been able to prevent starvation in the Reich. Rationing quotas vary between countries and between races. The Polish ration is only about one-fourth of the 2,400 calories considered necessary to maintain good health. The Czech quota is considerably higher. The Jewish quota of 400 calories per day is too low to live on.30 All reserve foodstuffs have been seized and transported to the Reich. Peasants are under compulsion to turn over their annual crops. Premiums are given for faithfulness in this regard. Seizure of food reserves exposes the millions under German rule to malnutrition, pestilence, and famine.31 Raw materials and manufactured goods essential to the Nazi war effort are siphoned from subject countries to the Reich. Factories of these countries are allowed to operate only if they produce goods considered essential to German needs.32
FORCED LABOR

The ever increasing shortage of manpower in Germany compelled her to use direct and brutal methods to secure the services of labor in the occupied countries. As a general rule, labor unions were broken up and a labor front organized on the Nazi model. Hours of labor were increased, child labor laws
United Nations Information Office, Rationing Under Axis Rule, 2 (London, 1941), pp. 3-4. 31 Cf. Henry Z. Lynn, "Biological Extermination of the Polish People," Polish Review, Vol. III, No. 38 (Oct. 18, 1943), pp. 3-4; Paul Einzig, op. cit. n. 17, pp. 107-10. 32 Ernest S. Hediger, "Nazi Economic Imperialism," op. cit. n. 2, pp. 142-44.
30

suspended, and social insurance laws adapted to German uses. Excluding Germans and Jews, two classes of labor were recognized: (1) those considered capable of assimilation, such as Czechs and Slovaks; and (2) those considered as enemies of the Reich, particularly Poles and Russians. For the first class, service in Germany was made voluntary at first, though compulsory labor in their own territory was required. Later, German labor offices were established, and pressure to volunteer increased until finally compulsion was invoked. In the Protectorate, a decree of February 2, 1943 made all men aged 16 to 65 and all women aged 17 to 45 subject to mobilization for war work. Workers in Slovakia were also placed under practical compulsion. Workers taken to Germany from these areas are theoretically on a par with German labor.33 In the case of the Poles, compulsory labor decrees of 1939-40 made all Poles aged 14 to 60 subject to labor conscription. In the Government-General,police raids, house-to-house searches, and other terroristic methods were employed to force workers to go to Germany. Quotas were fixed for each town and village, and fines assessed against them for failure to fulfill their quotas.34 According to the note of V. M. Molotov, Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs, addressed to the heads of the United Nations, the Soviet Government has documentary proof that hundreds of thousands of Russian peasants and workers have been abducted to Germany and there sold to German bidders in slave markets. In March 1942, according to Molo33 Cf. Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 94-98, 150; "Polish Workers in Germany," Polish Fortnightly Review, No. 65, April 1, 1943. 34 Cf. The Black Book of Poland, op. cit. n. 12, pp. 95 ff.; Polish Fortnightly Review, op. cit. n. 33, p. 2.

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(1) to assimilate all persons of Teutonic origin and as many Slavs as could be conveniently Germanized; (2) to clear out or destroy Slav populations in areas adjacent to Germanyproper by deportation and mass slaughter, and replace them with German colonists; (3) to destroy the bases of the national cultures of the peoples in the areas chosen for Lebensraum; and (4) by terrorism on the one hand and offers of special favors on the other, to induce as many adults as possible to become Germans, and to GERMANIZATION AND COLONIZATION take over the education of the children The Nazi dream of a German-domi- so as to rear them as Germans.38 nated continent of Europe could hardly People of German ancestry in the occome to pass if Germany were forced cupied territorieswere subjected to conto remain in the midst of hostile popu- tinuous propaganda and agitation prior lations whose rate of increase was to the invasion.39 When Germantroops greater than her own. Statistics of the moved in, the members of the German rate of growth of Czech and Polish minority were immediately elevated to populations, for instance, show defi- a position of special privilege under nitely that they were leading the Her- which they were made German citizens, renvolk and threatening in time to en- placed under German law and courts, gulf the German nation with a flood of appointed to lucrative positions, and Slavs. To a large extent, the drastic given preference in the markets and in measures undertaken by the Nazis the buying up of lands and businesses.40 In annexed Poland, 1,500,000 Poles against the Czechs, the Poles, and the Russians are explicable in these terms.36 were evacuated into central Poland, and Faced with this contingency which in 500,000 Germans from the Reich and time would mean the destruction of all other territories were brought in to take their aspirations, the Nazis, who in- over their possessions. Everything had herited and accepted with approval the to be left intact by the Poles except for Pan-German dream but without the a few personal belongings. Even these moral scruples of their predecessors, re- strenuous efforts raised the Germanprosolved upon a policy of extermination, portion to only 12 per cent of the total both biological and cultural, of the Slav population. The policy of colonization peoples in Europe proper, to a point was thus a failure from the start. But where they would no longer constitute war in the East compelled the Nazis to a menace to German expansionist proj38 See The Quest for German Blood, Lonects.37 don: Polish Ministry of Information, 1943. To accomplish this, the Nazis set out 39 Czechoslovak of
35U.S.S.R. Embassy, Information Bulletin No. 52 (May 15, 1943), pp. 1-4. 36 Cf. Henry Z. Lynn, op. cit. n. 31; J. S. Roucek, "The Minorities Problem in Czechoslovakia," Journal of Central European Affairs, Vol. III, No. 2 (July 1943), p. 192. 37 Paul Einzig, op. cit. n. 17, pp. 106-7. Ministry Foreign Affairs, German Minorities, Spearhead of Nazism, London: Lane and Malcomson, 1943. 40 Cf. Two Years of German Oppression in Czechoslovakia, op. cit. n. 7, Ch. III; "The Work of Germanization in the General Government," Polish Fortnightly Review, No. 63 (March 1, 1943), p. 6.

tov's note, Hitler established the "Commission on the Utilization of Labor Power" and ordered Fritz Sauchel, its head, to make full use of Russian labor power, mobilizing by force, if necessary, all available workers over fifteen years of age for labor in the Reich. Quotas were assigned and terrorism practiced in Russia also. By January 1943 the German press estimated that more than 700,000 workers had been taken from occupied Russia.85

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discontinue their efforts at colonization for the time being. Hence, a policy of Germanizingthe Poles was begun. Treating the Polish nation as a congeries of tribal and cultural groups, the Nazis classified all inhabitants of the area into four groups ranging from persons with known German blood to Poles of the purest type. A Deutsche Volksliste was established, and all persons claiming to be of German extraction were invited to register. A dearth of registrants, even under pressure, compelled breaking down of standards until finally anyone not a Jew or a Gypsy could register.41 The original German idea to dump all Poles into central Poland was changed, apparently, because of the failure to colonize western Poland. Hence, the Nazis decided to Germanize central Poland also. The theory of cultural heterogeneity was again asserted, and large numbers of Poles were pressed into professing German nationality. These elements were then moved into separate areas and dosed with German language and cultural courses.42 In Slovenia and northern Greece, tens of thousands of Slovenes and Greeks were expelled by the Germans and Bulgars and replaced by colonists.43
DESTRUCTION OF CULTURE PATTERNS

Typical techniques of the occupying powers included persecution, torture, arrest, imprisonment,or killing of leading intellectuals of the various countries. Teachers of all grades were especially singled out and required to espouse and teach the ideology of the occupying power or be "liquidated." In Poland,
41 The Quest for German Blood, op. cit. n. 38, pp. 8-18. 42 Polish Fortnightly Review, op. cit. n. 40, pp. 1-5. 43 Cf. Boris Furlan, op. cit. n. 10, pp. 16-17; Greek White Paper, Axis Crimes in Greece (London, 1942), p. 11.

Yugoslavia, occupied Russia, and Greece, particularly ruthless methods were employed to exterminate the intellectuals.44 Propaganda control was instituted by taking over the press, the radio, and the theater, expelling local staffs, and converting these agencies into propaganda centers for German culture. Branches of German propaganda agencies have been established in every occupied country in the area.45 Native schools on all levels of training have been closed or compelled to work under extreme handicaps such as teaching in a foreign language, with no textbooks, no heat for the rooms, and constant interference by the Gestapo. German teachers are replacing native teachers especially in the lower grades. Schools of the ruling powers are set up and native children encouraged to attend. Local languages and cultural subjects are replaced by the ideologies of the occupying powers.46 Universities and high schools have been closed, wrecked, and looted, and their faculties and student bodies attacked, tortured, or sent away to forced labor. Scientific laboratories have been confiscated, libraries looted and burned, and museums, art galleries, and valuable archives destroyed.47 Vocational schools have replaced the high schools and the terms have been
44Cf. United Nations Information Office,
Axis Oppression of Education, 4 (London, 1942), pp. 1 et seq.; U.S.S.R. Embassy, Information Bulletin No. 16 (Feb. 13, 1943), p. 5. 45 "German Propaganda System in Europe," Polish Fortnightly Review, No. 73 (London, Aug. 1, 1943), pp. 2 ff. 46 See Axis Oppression of Education, op. cit. n. 44. 47 Cf. G. M. Godden, Murder of a Nation, London: Burns Oates, 1943; Four Fighting Years, op. cit. n. 4, pp. 84 ff.; Boris Furlan, op. cit. n. 10, pp. 21 ff.; U.S.S.R. Embassy, Information Bulletin No. 82 (July 27, 1943), pp. 9-10.

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shortened. Subject peoples do not need culture.48 In Poland and Slovenia, only German may be spoken. In Greece, German, Italian, or Bulgarian is the primary language in the territory occupied by the respective nations. In general, names of streets, buildings, and monuments, and even the names in the cemeteries have been altered to conform to the language of the ruling power. The language of the occupying power is a compulsory subject in the lower schools. In the Protectorate, every child is expected to speak German fluently by the age of twelve.49
PERSECUTION OF THE CHURCHES

LIQUIDATION OF POPULATIONS

Churches constitute centers of resist-

ance to Axis totalitarian methods, aid in the preservation of national cultures, and help to keep up the spirits of the oppressed. Hence, they too were singled out for destruction.50 Priests were expelled, tortured, sent to concentration camps where they were exposed to the vilest of humiliation, or murdered. Churches were closed, converted to civil uses, plundered,and desecrated. Monuments and ancient temples were destroyed. Churches allowed to remain open were staffed by priests sent in by the ruling power, or incumbent priests were forced to accept censorship of their sermons and religious doctrines. Seminaries were closed to prevent the training of new priests. National churches in Poland, Yugoslavia, and Greece were singled out for special treatment. In occupied Russia, the Nazi objective seemed to be to rob, burn, and destroy churches, shrines, and
monuments.5'
48 Axis Oppression of Education, op. cit. n. 44, p. 20. 49 Ibid., pp. 9, 11-12, 20, 22, 23. 50 United Nations Information Office, Religious Persecution, 3 (New York, 1942), pp. 1, 7. 51 Ibid., pp. 7-9, 11, 18-23.

Mass murder of populations, especially Poles and Russians, was practiced by Germany and her satellites to reduce the density of population, quell resistance, permit policing with small garrisons, promote submission, and prevent a major resurgence by these enemy nations.52 The Jews were selected as the first victims. Czechoslovak Jews were deported to Poland. Polish, Russian, and Yugoslav Jews were mass murdereduntil all but a few were wiped out.53 Only in Greece have the Jews been comparatively unmolested.54 In Poland, summary justice and the system of hostages, whereby fifty or a hundred Poles were seized and executed for unsolved crimes, caused the death of thousands. Punitive expeditionsagainst offending villages and the execution of all male inhabitants frequently occurred. Below-par rations have resulted in a greatly increased death rate. In western Poland, Polish women under the age of 29 have been forbidden to marry, in order to prevent offspring. Mothers in this group with children are refused ration cards because their marriages were "illegal." Recently mass murder has been resorted to on a large scale. According to the Polish Review, entire districts are being exterminated.55 Official reports of the Soviet Government show that the Germans have re52 Paul Einzig, op. cit. n. 17, pp. 49, 102-3, 106-7. 53 Cf. Interallied Information Committee, Persecution of the Jews, 6 (London, 1942), pp. 5, 7, 9-10, 15-20; U.S.S.R. Embassy, Information Bulletin No. 80 (July 22, 1943), pp. 1-4; Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Mass Extermination of Jews in Poland (New York: Roy, 1942), p. 16. 54 Persecution of the Jews, op. cit. n. 53, p. 10. 55 Cf. Henry Z. Lynn, op. cit. n. 31, pp. 3-5; The Black Book of Poland, op. cit. n. 12, Ch. II; Polish Review, Vol. III, 30 (Aug. 23, 1943), p. 15.

IN ANDEASTERN EUROPE AXIS DOMINATION CENTRAL sorted to mass murder in all occupied areas of the Soviet Union, indiscriminately. Men, women, and children have been killed by the thousands and their bodies buried in common graves, many of which have been recovered by the Red Army on reoccupation.56 Shooting of hostages and mass murders of offendingvillagers have been carried out on a wide scale also in BohemiaMoravia, Yugoslavia, and Greece.57

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unities and loyalties, and in the shifting and intermixture of populations in a way that will pose a formidableproblem in political reconstructionafter the war. Large-scale inflation and consequent bankruptcy will follow upon the German retreat. Probably only intervention and reconstruction by the Allied powers can prevent chaos.59 Removal by the Nazis of all reserve food supplies has led and is leading to mass starvation. Enormous quantities CONCLUSION of food will be required to meet this The wealth- and labor-garnering ac- situation. tivities of the Axis powers in the occuHatred of the bloodthirsty methods of areas of central and eastern Europe the oppressorshas aroused a consuming pied have enormously expanded the produc- passion for vengeance which will contive capacity of Germany and her allies tinue for generations and will constitute and greatly extended their staying power an unsettling force very difficult to conin the war.58 trol. On the other hand, Axis methods have The unraveling of the lines of Axis resulted in the disintegrating of national control and reconstruction of political entities satisfactory to the peoples of 56 Cf. U.S.S.R. Embassy, Information Bullecentral and eastern Europe will demand tins No. 25 (Aug. 5, 1941), p. 5; No. 90 (Aug. the highest quality of statesmanship 14, 1943), pp. 2-4; No. 13 (Feb. 6, 1943), from leaders of this section of Europe p. 8. 57United Nations Information Office, The and from the great powers. Axis 1
System of Hostages, pp. 4-5, 7-8, 12-15. rope, op. cit. n. 1, p. 6. (New York, 1942),
59

58Penetration of German Capital into Eu-

tral Europe,"AmericanPolitical Science Review, Vol. XXXVII, No. 5 (Oct. 1943), p. 980.

Dinko Tomasic, "Reconstruction in Cen-

Floyd A. Cave, Ph.D., is professor of government at San Francisco State College, and a member of the Board of Appeals of the State Colleges of the State of California. He was formerly associate professor of political science at the University of Redlands. He is co-author of Modern World Politics.