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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................4
2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES ....................................................................................................5
3 GOAL AND SCOPE............................................................................................................5
3.1 Goal .................................................................................................................................5
3.2 Scope of the study...........................................................................................................6
3.3 Scope of data for impact assessment ............................................................................9
3.4 Data sources ...................................................................................................................9
4 INVENTORY DATA COLLECTION..................................................................................10
4.1 Defining the process .....................................................................................................10
4.2 Outputs ..........................................................................................................................11
4.3 Inputs .............................................................................................................................11
4.4 Emissions and discharges ............................................................................................12
5 INVENTORY DATA HANDLING:- ALLOCATION............................................................14
5.1 Explanation of allocation rules ......................................................................................14
5.2 Summary of rules for allocation.....................................................................................20
6 FURTHER INVENTORY DATA HANDLING....................................................................21
6.1 Rules and conventions ..................................................................................................21
6.2 Creating the generic Profile...........................................................................................21
6.3 Transport .......................................................................................................................23
6.4 Fuel................................................................................................................................23
6.5 Carbon cycle .................................................................................................................25
6.6 Adjusting carbon dioxide emissions for re-carbonation................................................26
6.7 Emissions ......................................................................................................................26
6.8 Imports...........................................................................................................................27
7 IMPACT ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................................28
7.1 Presentation of results: the Environmental Profiles......................................................28
7.2 The impact assessment process ..................................................................................28
7.3 Explanation of impacts on the characterised and normalised Profile ..........................29
8 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................33
9 ANNEXES .........................................................................................................................34
A1 AVERAGE GROSS CALORIFIC VALUES FOR UK FUELS - 1996..............................34
A2 FUEL USED IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION 1996 ....................................................34
A3 TOTAL AND UPSTREAM FUEL EMISSION FACTORS 1996......................................35
A4 PRIMARY ENERGY RATIOS FOR UK DELIVERED ENERGY - 1996 .......................35
A5 GROSS v NET CALORIFIC VALUES ............................................................................36
A6 STANDARD CONVERSION FACTORS AND UNITS....................................................36
A7 CARBONATION CALCULATIONS .................................................................................37
A8 TRANSPORT METHODOLOGY FOR CALCULATING FUEL USE..............................38
A9 SOURCES OF LCA DATA..............................................................................................41
A10 THE STANDARD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INVENTORY DATA COLLECTION. .......42
A11 CHARACTERISATION FACTORS ..............................................................................49
A12 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILES DATABASE......................61
A13 INVENTORY PROFILE FORMAT ................................................................................63
A14 CHARACTERISED AND NORMALISED DATA PROFILE FORMAT .........................65
1
THE BRE METHODOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILES OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS, COMPONENTS AND BUILDINGS
This document is the result of over 3 years work in collaboration with representatives of the
Construction Materials sector through a DETR Partners in Technology project. The following
organisations have participated in the steering group for this project. It is the view of the
majority of the members of this steering group that the methodology set out in this document
is a practical, consistent and comprehensive method for the life cycle assessment of all
types of building materials and components.
The following experts in Life Cycle Assessment and Building have undertaken a peer review
of this methodology:
They have confirmed that the choices used in this methodology conform with International
Standard Organisation Guidelines ISO14041.
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Environmental Profiles are the result of over three years work undertaken in collaboration
with representatives of the Construction Materials sector through a DETR Partners in
Technology project. The work has been conducted to enable architects, specifiers and
clients to make informed decisions about construction materials and components, by
developing a method for providing independent, "level playing field" information about the
relative environmental impacts of different design options. BRE believe that the collaboration
between UK materials industries and BRE has resulted in a methodology that is unique
worldwide in its consistent application of the LCA approach. UK materials producers should
reap competitive benefits from the method, which sets a new standard for delivering this
increasingly important aspect of product information.
The work has achieved two significant results: this methodology document and a UK
national database providing access to Environmental Profiles generated by the industry.
The Methodology document has been produced to ensure transparency of the methods
employed in creating Environmental Profiles. This document describes in detail the
consistent approach to the identification and assessment of the impacts of all construction
materials and components over their life cycle, including:
Profiles which have been created over the life of the project are held in the UK Database of
Environmental Profiles of Construction Materials and Components, which is available via an
Internet service. Materials producers can add new Profiles for additional products at any time
and the database will be regularly updated.
3
BRE METHODOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILES OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS, COMPONENTS AND BUILDINGS
1 INTRODUCTION
The reason for producing the agreed methodology is to ensure consistent assessment of
different types of building materials, elements and whole buildings and to help the user by
reducing the number of confusing claims about the environmental properties of alternative
building products.
This document is provided to ensure transparency of the method applied to create the data
in the Environmental Profiles Database. It records the rationale and methodological rules
that have been adopted by BRE to create a standard UK method of applying LCA to
construction products and components. There is no single "right" answer for applying LCA
but it is has been agreed by the majority of the building materials producers representatives
in the project that this methodology represents a suitable approach to deal with all building
materials. It is recognised that different approaches to LCA which can be applied to building
materials may be equally valid and also meet ISO criteria. The BRE methodology has been
devised with the particular aim of assisting decision makers to make comparisons between
all types of building material from a "level playing field" perspective.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) requires the collection of an inventory of data on all the inputs
*
and outputs of a process, i.e. the environmental burdens and their subsequent conversion
into defined environmental impacts.
This document provides a description of the basic principles that are applied in the creation
of Environmental Profiles and is then structured around the different LCA stages that are
undertaken to produce the Environmental Profiles. For each stage in the process a
description of the work undertaken is provided. More information on LCA may be found in
Guidelines 1. from SETAC, the Society for Ecological Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC),
which is a leading authority in life cycle analysis development,
*
The inputs and outputs to a system are called "interventions" under International Standard
Organisation convention. In this document the term environmental "burdens" is used
because we consider it to have more meaning for the user.
4
2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The following principles are fundamental to every stage of BRE's application of LCA to
building materials, components and buildings and encapsulate the philosophy and logic
behind the method to be adopted:
BRE's methodology aims to be consistent for all stages of the life cycle across all
material classes – i.e. the winning of raw materials and fuels, energy conversion, chemical
processes, manufacture, fabrication, transport, operation and use, repair and maintenance,
refurbishment, demolition, reuse or recycling, disposal.
These principles represent the ideal and are often not reflected in existing databases, due to
the difficulties of achieving them in practice. In BRE's work every endeavour has been made
to comply with these principles. For practical reasons however, it is necessary in some
cases to use data that is unknown with respect to these objectives. In such cases it must be
ensured that the results are not sensitive to this data.
Whenever a life cycle assessment is performed, it is necessary to define why the study is
being made and for whom. This is the goal. It is then necessary to define what will be
included within the parameters of the study and what it is not possible or desirable to
include. This is the scope.
3.1 Goal
Target audience
Designers, specifiers and their clients and those involved in the production of LCAs for
buildings.
Intended use
The data is intended to be used to improve the environmental performance of building
designs, by allowing the designer to understand the impacts from different building elements
and optimise the overall impact of a building design.
5
3.2 Scope of the study
Boundaries
Materials and components can be considered to have a lifetime from cradle to grave.
The BRE method accounts for burdens and impacts on a cradle to grave basis. In other
words, from the point when man exploits resources from the environment to the point at
which the goods and services used become redundant and the materials and other effects
return to the environment.
In application, BRE results are also presented for some intermediate stages i.e. cradle to
gate and cradle to site. If the scope of the assessment is declared cradle to gate, the
investigation must trace production right back to the winning of all of the raw materials but
does not include impacts beyond the factory gate. If the scope is declared as cradle to
grave, then all of the processes from the winning of raw material through production, through
use, reuse and recycling until eventual disposal within the environment need to be
accounted for.
"Gate to gate assessments" incorporate only one part of the production process and are
considered to be potentially misleading because they may omit many of the largest impact
phases of production. For example, the fabrication of a component might involve very high
impact materials, but only incur modest impacts from a gate to gate assessment of the
fabrication process alone. This type of scope would be useful for manufacturers wishing to
seek process improvements. This is not a goal of the work described in this project but the
rules
A cradle to grave assessment appears at first sight to be the most complete and
comprehensive and hence most justifiable. However, in making a cradle to grave
assessment, large numbers of assumptions must be made about the use phase of the
materials and products over typically very long timescales for buildings. For example, for
insulation materials, their insulating properties will be far more important over the life of
application than the impacts from the material production. In addition, scenarios of
maintenance, repair and replacement must also be assumed and these can also have many
times more effect on the life cycle performance than the initial production, especially over
long life buildings.
Functional Units
To understand the life cycle of a product, it is essential that it is considered in the context of
its application - i.e. in its functional unit.
Whilst materials and components can be considered to have a lifetime from cradle to grave,
it is not possible to assign a life to a pile of bricks or tonne of insulation - they only have a
true "life" when considered in the context in which they are used, e.g. as a wall. As a wall, or
any other type of building element, building components do assume a life and they will fulfil
various functions for a set amount of time, they will have maintenance requirements and will
have to be dismantled at the end of their role in the building. Different materials can then be
compared on a like-for-like basis, as components that fulfil the same or very similar
functions. This means that important variables such as the mass of a material required to
fulfil a particular function are therefore taken into account. For example, the results of a
direct comparison between 1 tonne of steel and 1 tonne concrete would be misleading to a
6
building designer. Instead the quantity of steel, and the other components, required to
produce a square metre of steel wall should be compared with the quantity of concrete, and
other components, required to make a concrete wall with a comparable function.
The functional unit for construction materials has been chosen to be their typical as-built
elemental form, over a service life of sixty years.
The preparation of the per tonne inventory involves tracing all raw materials back to their
extraction, describing the mode of transport and distance travelled to the processing site and
the processing activities carried out there. The inputs and outputs to these processes are
then identified. For some products, transport to a second site may need to be included as
well as further manufacturing activity.
Per tonne data is calculated for materials and components, for example “manufacture of one
tonne of Portland cement”. This data comprises of information about the inputs and outputs
involved in extracting, processing or making the input materials. These, plus the
environmental burdens of actually making the cement itself, must be added together to
achieve the full picture for a tonne of cement. Per tonne information provides the basic
"building blocks" of Environmental Profiles and hence the database. When materials are
considered per tonne however, they are not a functional unit and therefore they do not have
a life cycle associated with them.
For per tonne data, the boundary is defined as cradle to gate, therefore transport data to
construction site is not included in per tonne data.
• Installed elements
Per installed element data has a boundary of cradle to installation on site. This type of
Profile allows the user to see the overall burdens of different components in specific function
but require the user to apply their own life time factors.
The functional units must have an anticipated lifetime and maintenance programme if
replacement and maintenance factors are to be taken into account. Environmental Profiles
for per sixty year building elements will again be for a square metre of element, as for
installed elements, but determined for the life of the element in a typical building of 60 years.
This data has a scope defined as cradle to site over a 60 year life. The lifetime includes
consideration of environmental aspects from gate to grave, within the limitations of current
knowledge. For this methodology, a BRE study into information available2 has resulted in
the following boundaries for cradle to grave Profiles which affect the collection of data
7
between the factory gate and the end of life. These assumptions will be investigated in
further research.
• Boundary assumption 4: Life Time Use: Contribution to Life time Energy Use in a
Building
All buildings are built to meet building regulations and achieve the minimum U-value. All the
element specifications have been chosen because they achieve this requirement. This
allows the designer to consider the overall impact from quantities of different materials
required to produce different building solutions. For example, the merit of more insulative
wall materials is made explicit because less insulation material is included in the prepared
element, which has been designed to meet the desired U-value.
8
3.3 Scope of data for impact assessment
The long term aim of this work is to comprehensively account for all of the key parameters of
environmental, economic and social impact including land use, resource consumption,
energy, labour, capital, the consequential pollution to air, water and land and the resulting
ecotoxicity and human toxic impacts, the wastes arising for disposal and their potential for
reuse and recycling. Currently, the work is restricted to environmental impacts from:
Energy, Minerals and Water consumption, Waste, Air and Water emissions.
These are generally considered to be the burdens most relevant for construction materials.
Land use and biodiversity issues are important omissions from this list. These and others
may be added into future editions as the methodology evolves. The list of issues and their
measurement units will need to develop and be updated progressively as knowledge
and methods improve.
Preferred sources
1. Detailed process information obtained directly from a reasonable sample of
manufacturers of UK building materials, products and components.
2. Industry-generated average figures without data separately identified from individual
companies. Where industries supply data collected as part of a previous LCA study, full
details of the rules and conventions used in the study have been sought and the BRE
methodology applied.
3. For substances and products which have a significant input to a process but for which
data cannot be readily obtained from the suppliers, data has been obtained from existing
commercial databases (sources used are fully referenced in Annex 9).
Data quality
Data in Environmental Profiles is accompanied by descriptors relating to sources and
collection methods. See Profile format, Annex 13 and 14.
BRE will endeavour to make random checks on data providers to verify the sources and
estimation methods used to derive data. Ultimately, however, the database relies upon the
quality of data provided by industry.
9
4 INVENTORY DATA COLLECTION
This chapter contains the guidelines for compiling the inventory. To compile the inventory,
the boundaries of the process must be defined and then data about inputs and outputs to the
process collected.
For all data provided for the UK National database, a comprehensive process tree
should be provided including any major transportation stages with a clearly marked
system boundary to indicate the included from the excluded processes. The resulting
inventory should balance in mass terms and in energy terms (taking due account of any
phase change processes like evaporation in order to be thermodynamically correct. The
only exception is nuclear processes where mass and energy must collectively balance). In
other words, the total energy or mass flowing into the system boundary must be accounted
for with an equivalent mass or energy flow out of the system boundary. Figure 1 provides a
standard format for creating a process tree.
Figure 1
Generic Process Tree
PROCESS OUTPUTS
Inputs Inputs
1
tr
PROCESS OUTPUTS
3 INCLUDING
(ETC) FINAL
tr PRODUCT
PROCESS
Inputs 2
OUTPUTS
tr Transport
Annex 10 gives a standard questionnaire suitable for data collection when creating
Environmental Profiles.
Inputs: Materials
Transport Fuel
Process Fuel
Water
Outputs: Emissions to air
Discharge to water
Emissions to land
10
Guidelines for the collection of data for each inventory item are given below. Details of how
the data should then be manipulated to provide the per tonne inventory are given in section
5, "Inventory Data Handling"
4.2 Outputs
Information on all outputs from the process, including any co-products, by-products and
materials sent for re-cycling/re-use/re-processing should be provided. This includes any
output which is sold, recycled or re-used in any way, such as waste oil, packaging sent for
reuse and by-products such as slag from iron production.
Where data on inputs or emissions have been given which apply to more than the product
being considered for the Profiles project, e.g. total factory output or product and co-product,
then effort should be made to identify the emissions associated with the product under
consideration. If this is not possible, the methodology requires that the burdens of
production are allocated to the products according to economic value. Relative values of the
product to all relevant outputs should therefore be provided where necessary. Information on
the allocation procedure is given in greater detail in Chapter 5.
4.3 Inputs
Inputs to the process that are measured in the inventory include the materials associated
with the manufacture of a product and also the consumption of fuel and water.
a) Materials
The inventory process gathers all the inputs to the plant that are associated with a product,
including product ingredients, packaging materials and consumable items.
Data should be included on all materials with a mass greater than 2% of the output
from the process. Information should also be provided for materials which contribute less
than 2% by mass, but possibly have:
Materials with a low mass input but which contribute a significant proportion of the energy
input should also be included. For example, the adhesives which are used in the
manufacture of window frames are integral to the product and should be included even
though they account for less than 2% of the output (by mass).
11
b) Transport of materials to the plant
Data on transport to site should be collected for all the input materials, including fuels
delivered to the site (excluding electricity and pipelines). This may be achieved by more than
one mode of transport. These should be listed, including size and type, along with the
average distance travelled, the number of deliveries per year, average delivery weight, and
what is carried on the return journey (or percentage part load). Where more than one
supplier is used, estimates of the tonnage from each should be made and information
provided about each one.
If electricity is not purchased from the national supply, its source should be given.
The calorific value of fuels such as wood residues, secondary liquid fuels (SLF) and landfill
gas should be included. Inherent fuels such as fletton clay and fuels obtained from recovery
processes such as blast furnace gas or waste wood should also be included. Information
about the transport mode and distances to deliver fuels to site should be provided in b)
"Transport of materials to plant."
d) Water use
The inventory must include the water brought into the plant each year in terms of the total
quantity used and, where possible, the quantity per tonne of product. It is useful to
distinguish water purchased from water company and private supplies of surface and ground
water. It is also important to distinguish water use from water abstracted to ensure any
recycling of water is recognised within the Profile. This will mean that the recycled water is
not given a burden for extraction every time it is used.
e) Capital equipment
Although it is a form of indirect energy input into the process, the contribution of capital
equipment is not normally considered in LCA and it is not included here. Maintenance of
equipment, including use of lubricants, is also not included in the LCA. Frequently
"consumed" items such as saw blades and sanding paper and mould oil are included in the
inventory.
The inventory includes a record of the quantities of each substance of interest associated
with the manufacture of one tonne of the material or product. Emissions from industries
considered in this methodology include those resulting directly from processes and those
resulting from fuel use.
Some emissions are measured by the industry, others may be calculated in the preparation
of the inventory from standardised conversion factors (see the next section). Others may
derive from assumptions made about the process, e.g. the CO2 produced by the heating of
carbon containing minerals such as limestone, from theory based on chemical composition.
If emissions are measured and calculated on an annual basis for Integrated Pollution Control
(IPC) authorisation, then these values may be used and allocated appropriately. If such
values are not available, then the results of other measurements should be supplied.
Estimates should be accompanied by a clear explanation of their origin.
12
Emissions from a plant may be from more than one product. If emissions are known to arise
from specific products, by causal relationship, then these should be provided together with a
description of the method used to identify the emissions. If this is not possible, emissions for
the whole plant should be provided. Accidental emissions are not included. Negative
emissions of substances, e.g. sequestration of CO2 by growing plants or re-carbonation of
lime should be included (see sections 6.5 and 6.6.).
a) Emissions to Air
In theory, it is only necessary to record emissions to air resulting directly from the process
and as a default, emissions arising from fuel usage will be calculated separately, using
standard emission factors. It is important to note however, that emissions of NO x , CO and
VOCs are dependent on the efficiency of combustion and emission control techniques may
have been fitted for SOx and PM10 emissions. Therefore, if these emissions are measured at
a plant, these measurements should be provided to give a more accurate inventory.
b) Discharges to Water
Inventory information is collected on the total quantity of water discharged to both the sewer
and to surface water (fresh and marine) each year. Both average values and ranges should
be provided for the concentrations of BOD, COD and suspended solids discharged to both
sewer and surface water, as well as the sampling procedure used. Other measured
emissions should be provided.
c) Emissions to land
Waste is defined in this project as a product of a manufacturing or processing stage which
the manufacturer considers has no value and no purpose in that part of the process. It
includes particulates collected from gas streams and de-watered sludge and solids from
treated effluents. It is important to identify those materials that manufacturers consider to be
waste separately to those which they treat as co-products and by-products such as slag from
iron production and bark from wood processing.
Information is required on the categories, quantities and final destination of both controlled
wastes and those which are not controlled, e.g. mine overburden waste from mining and
extraction operations and furnace slag, ash, bark and sawdust which is not reused or sold on
from processing operations. Information on controlled waste can be collected from 'Duty of
Care' transfer notes.
It is important to provide as much detailed information as possible about the content and the
destination of waste. Information should be provided on the quantities produced per year of
the three main categories - Controlled Commercial, Controlled Industrial, Controlled Special
- as well as a list of the main materials in the description of the wastes produced. For raw
materials extraction, there is an additional category, mine and quarry waste, which should be
used. For special waste, the National Waste Classification Codes and Hazard Property
Codes 4 should be given where possible. Data should be provided on the route(s) for
disposal which are in current use. The potential recyclability of a product is not considered
at the data collection stage - see Chapter 5.
13
5 INVENTORY DATA HANDLING:- ALLOCATION
Figure 2
Allocation principles
WHY THE PROCESS EXISTS RETURN
Capital Investment £C Σ v.t
Allocate
t1
P r o d u c t 1 w o r t h £ v 1.t1 P . v 1 .t 1 / Σ v.t
Process P
Inputs
t2
P r o d u c t 2 w o r t h £ v 2.t2 P . v 2 .t 2 / Σ v.t
t3
R e c y c l e d w a s t e £ v 3 .t 3 P . v 3 .t 3 / Σ v.t
t4
R e c y c l e d w a s t e £ 0 . t4 P.0.t 1 / Σ v.t
Wastes
A unit process is supplied with inputs and generates output products, by-products and
recyclable wastes all of which might find application in further processes, together with
wastes which must be disposed of and pollution which must be carried by the environment.
An allocation rule is needed to assign the burdens appropriately between the co-products
and reusable or recyclable wastes. ISO 14040 recommends a series of priorities for
allocation as follows:
BRE recognises the desirability of avoiding allocation and therefore separates processes
into sub-processes to avoid allocation wherever possible. To achieve the goal of the BRE
study it is necessary to have a standard method of LCA for all materials. To achieve a
common approach to allocation, wherever physical data is available to divide between two
processes, then this information will be used to allocate between multi-product processes.
However, where physical data is not known there is a requirement for a further method that
can be applied to all materials. It is not possible to use system expansion for all materials
because alternative products must be available for which the by products from a system can
14
be substituted and this does not apply to all materials. BRE consider economic value to be
an effective and appropriate method of allocation which can be applied consistently to all
materials where avoidance or allocation by physical property cannot be applied.
Where two product streams come from a single process (or inseparable parallel
processes), and physical data is not available, BRE will allocate burdens according to
the proportion of product revenue earned from the two product streams. This rule is
considered to be justified because the producer has invested in setting up the process(es)
and expects to earn revenues from the product streams. Accordingly the value of the
product streams is considered the most appropriate basis for allocation since it assigns the
burdens in proportion to the product streams contribution to profits arising from the
process(es). See Figure 2. The price that is used to make the allocation is the average three
year market price of the relevant materials.
If process 1 and 2 are sequential processes, with all product 1 used as an input for product
2, all of the inputs, wastes and pollution for both processes can be added together, product 1
can be ignored and all of the burdens can be assigned to product 2. This is called expanding
the system boundary so that the two processes can be treated like a single process. For
sequential processes, it is acceptable to expand the system boundary to account for
them collectively. See Figure 3.
Figure 3
Sequential processes
Input
2
If only part of the output from product 1 goes into process 2 then only the appropriate
proportion by mass of the burdens going into process 2 should be passed on to
process 2 and assigned to the production of product 2. The remainder of these
burdens should remain with the balance of product 1.
Figure 4 shows that if process 1 and 2 are operated in parallel in a single production
facility, they should as far as possible be treated as separate processes and the
inputs, outputs, wastes and pollution calculated separately for the two processes. In
practice, however, it may often not be possible to distinguish the processes, especially
where they share common feedstock or fuel sources that are not separately metered. In
cases where the data cannot be separated for the two processes, the system
boundary can be expanded to encompass both processes, and allocation by product
stream value will be used to allocate burdens between the products.
15
Figure 4
2. How to allocate impacts between recycled, reused and primary product from process
scrap, home scrap or end use scrap or wastes.
3. Whether to reward a product today for its recyclability over very long building timescales
(perhaps over hundreds of years for several recycles) OR focus upon only today’s
decision-making and current recycling and recycled content.
BRE have chosen to resolve these issues by adopting the following rules in the
Environmental Profiles methodology.
16
Allocation for recycling and reuse
Expanding the system boundary is an appropriate way to account for closed loop
recycling in sequential processes. If material is recycled between sequential process
stages (as in Figure 5 - closed loop recycling or “recycling into the same process”), then
expanding the system boundary to incorporate the recycling processes is considered the
best way of accounting for this.
Figure 5
Primary production =
P ( 1 - y ( v r/ v p ) ) + y (v r / v p ) ) = P
^added from recycled
^deducted from primary for recycled.
yield y
However, if (as in Figure 6) material is taken out of the system boundary, then the
recycled material has to be treated separately. Where scrap arises from post
consumer use (old scrap), it is not considered appropriate to expand the system
boundary to take account of scrap arising. To do so requires a comprehensive scenario
of use, repair, maintenance, dereliction and reuse and recycling to be assumed over very
long timescales. It would be difficult to be confident that all parties in the chain of decision
making would consistently comply with the assumptions made, especially over such long
periods. A similar approach to Figure 6 is therefore taken as if a separate recycling process
is undertaken to recycle material, rather than adding this material as an input to the primary
production (Figure 7).
Figure 6
Primary production
=
P ( 1 - ( t r .v r)/( t p . v p ) ) o r Recycled production =
P ( 1 - y ( v r/v p ) ) Use 2 R + P ( ( y .v r /v p )
^deducted from ^share of primary in 1st recycle
primary for recycled. If the recycled material has no
yield y value, then none of the impacts
from the first process are
attributable to the recycled product.
17
Figure 7
Wastes or recycled products from open loop recycling will be allocated burdens
based on the residual value of the waste stream compared to the value of the process
product (and waste) streams.
The same approach can be applied to allocating burdens to wastes or recycled products
from open loop recycling as between products and co-products based on the value of the
waste stream. This approach allocates a proportion of the impacts from production to the
wastes that arise, in proportion to the residual value of those wastes compared to the value
of the original products (and wastes). In this way, the burdens assigned to the product are
effectively assigned to the use of the product over its life. At the end of the useful life of the
product, it becomes a redundant liability unless it retains some inherent value. The burdens
assigned to a valueless waste stream would be zero, but if a product retains some value
then it ought to carry some of the burdens of its production onto the recycling or reuse
phases.
The proportion of burdens carried by a waste into the future are then subtracted from
the burdens assigned to the primary product. Mathematically, this is completely
consistent with the closed loop recycling principles and expanding the system boundary
because any burdens retained by closed loop recycled product (which are subtracted from
the primary production) are added again when the scrap returns to the process. The method
also works for waste recycled into new construction materials production. If the waste has a
market value, then it should attract a proportion of the burdens from the process. These are
in turn subtracted from the burdens for producing the other products. This approach appears
to give very sensible results. Producers that consume PFA from power stations would attract
less than 0.02% of the burdens from electricity production because PFA is of such small
value compared to the electricity as the main product . The PFA that is sold receives a
proportion of the impacts of electricity generation, including a proportion of the burden of
PFA sent to landfill, according to its market value.
Hence, all of the materials arising from a process that have a financial value attract a
proportion of the burdens associated with the production processes. This approach is
entirely consistent, avoids double or undercounting and assigns burdens in proportion to the
value paid and therefore perceived by society for the materials and products.
18
Figure 8 demonstrates an important feature of the recycling methodology. "Home scrap" is
scrap which arises from further fabrication processes but is not "post consumer" scrap,
otherwise known as "old scrap". In this methodology, home scrap is considered to arise
within the expanded boundary of the production process. Only old scrap is considered to
have left the system and is thus available to reduce the impacts of the production process
through recycling.
Figure 8
Recycle R
For “home scrap” and for “new scrap”, expand the system boundary.
Only “old scrap” should attract any recycling discount from the production
processes .
19
has advantages in that it can consistently use the same allocation rules based on the value
of product or waste streams without the complications of discounting for future values.
BRE will use recycled content as the basis for its methodology together with
consistent allocation rules based on the value of current waste streams. In most
cases, recycled material will attract no burdens from earlier phases of production.
Recyclability cannot be considered consistently with this approach.
• Where two product streams come from a single process (or inseparable parallel
processes), burdens are allocated according to the proportion of product revenue earned
from the two product streams.
• For sequential processes, it is acceptable to expand the system boundary to account for
them collectively.
• If only part of the output from a product 1 goes into a process 2 then only the appropriate
proportion by mass of the burdens going into process 2 should be passed on to process
2 and assigned to the production of product 2. The remainder of these burdens should
remain with the balance of product 1.
• If two processes are operated in parallel in a single production facility, they should as far
as possible be treated as separate processes and the inputs, outputs, wastes and
pollution calculated separately for the two processes.
• In cases where the data cannot be separated for the two processes, the system
boundary can be expanded to encompass both processes, and allocation by product
stream value will be used to allocate burdens between the products. This is the price at
which the product is sold by the manufacturer and should be based on 3 year average
prices.
• The proportion of burdens carried by a waste into the future are then subtracted from the
burdens assigned to the primary product.
• Hence, all of the materials arising from a process that have a financial value attract a
proportion of the burdens associated with the production processes.
• Where repeated recycling occurs, for example for metals, the primary burden carried
forward through each recycling decreases until after an infinite number of recycles it
reaches zero.
20
6 FURTHER INVENTORY DATA HANDLING
Raw inventory data collected from manufacturers must be modified to produce standard data
in an Environmental Profile. The process is as follows:
• Data is converted to standard units, e.g. MJ for energy, Tonnes for inputs.
• Conversion figures for transport, into emissions to air and fuel consumption will have
been applied
• Conversion figures for fuel will have been applied into emissions
• Additional figures will have been incorporated to fill in missing data from plants (with the
approval of data providers) and to expand the data to include later stages in the life cycle
of the product.
• Allocation procedures will have been applied to obtain burdens for the main products and
by-products etc.
• Transport figures will be calculated to provide data on product delivery to site.
• Where appropriate, lifetime data on maintenance and replacement will be added, at first
using readily available information and professional rules of thumb. Additional information
will be acquired from the further BRE study of life cycle impacts.
• The data will have been normalised to per tonne levels.
• Generic UK figures will be calculated where individual site data have been provided.
The checklist in Table 1 describes the inventory data handling procedures for converting
each inventory item to per tonne data items. This is followed by a more detailed explanation
of how generic Profiles are produced.
Where data is available from a number of sites for a product group, the generic product for
the UK is arrived at by applying an average based on the proportional contribution of each
site by mass to the total UK mix of the sites supplied, where known. In a small number of
cases the generic figure is derived from one site.
It has already been noted that upstream data, i.e. data about inputs into a process, has been
obtained from within the Profiles project where possible, but that important data gaps in
manufacturing data sets that we cannot fill from partners will be filled using data from best
available sources. These are primarily from IVAM, Pré, BUWAL, ETH and SBI data, listed in
Annex 9. Further data may also be found from other sources, using the most recent and
geographically applicable data as a preference. Wherever possible, all additional data is
allocated according to the principles outlined in this document. Considerable effort has been
made to check and compare the accuracy of additional data to UK production and other
sources of data. Where possible, the UK fuel mix for electricity generation, together with
associated emissions have been applied to the additional data. A lack of transparency in the
inventory may prevent this.
21
Table 1: Inventory data handling checklist
OUTPUTS
• Output materials:
1) Define Principal product for per tonne Datasheet
2) Include all other Products and By products
3) Include all materials sent to recycling
4) Divide outputs by product output in tonnes to obtain per tonne data.
5) Obtain relative values of all Outputs
Use relative values to allocate
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INPUTS
• Transport:
1) Check total inputs, loads, vehicle sizes and number of deliveries correspond.
2) Allocate to principal product.
3) Apply method for fuel consumption and emissions to air (see Annex 8).
4) Divide by principal product output in tonnes to obtain per tonne Data.
• Fuel:
1) Convert quantities to MJ
2) Allocate to principal product
3) Divide by principal product output to obtain per tonne data.
4) Use standard conversion factors to obtain Primary Energy value.
5) Use standard conversion figures to obtain Fossil Fuel Depletion value.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Water Use, Supply and Discharge:
3
1) Convert quantities to M
2) Divide by product output to give per tonne data. Note: use of recycled water is accounted for by
considering total water use and total output.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EMISSIONS
• Emissions to Water
1) Cross check with Chemical Release Inventory
2) If concentration is given, multiply by water discharge to obtain mass
3) Allocate to principal product.
4) Divide by principal output in tonnes to give per tonne data
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Emissions to Air
1) Calculate emission for each fuel using Standard Conversion factors.
2) Ensure process emissions are included.
3) If chimney emissions have been given, check which fuels these apply to and ensure that there is
no discrepancy between calculated emissions and given emissions (taking account of efficiencies
and attenuation, e.g. FGDS) and substitute chimney emissions.
4) Cross check with Chemical Release Inventory
5) Allocate to principal product
6) Divide by product output in tonnes to obtain per tonne data
7) Aggregate data together with Emissions to Air arising from Transport.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Emissions to Land
1) Includes Solid and Liquid emissions to Landfill and Incinerators (and Mine and Quarry waste etc.)
2) If incinerated on-site, give details of incineration emissions and any heat recovery.
3) Allocate to principal products
4) Divide by product output to obtain Per tonne data.
22
6.3 Transport
Transport to site
Standard values will be assumed for each material or component. In life cycle software tools,
it should be possible to change this "default" to take account of local conditions.
In the absence of better data, the standard values for transport to the construction site from
the factory gate is based on "average" haulage journeys for each material in the UK, as
collated by DETR. It is assumed that there is an average loaded journey from the final
fabricator to the site and that the return journey is empty and of average length. Using fuel
consumption figures for different types of lorry, and the total distance travelled, the fuel used
and associated emissions can be calculated. The loaded distance travelled in order to
transport 1 tonne of product gives tonnes kilometres. Transport to site is not associated with
per tonne figures. It is incorporated into the figures for installed and sixty year life elements.
6.4 Fuel
Fuels of no economic value, e.g. oil within fireclay and "town ash" are considered to have a
primary energy value because the energy to win these fuels is considered in the inventory
when they are used. Their transport to the place of consumption, i.e. factory, contributes to
the energy consumption of the final product but is not included in the "primary energy" of the
fuel, as for standard fuels.
Primary energy is provided as a data item in the Inventory Environmental Profile. The
primary energy is equivalent to the "embodied energy" figure for a material or
element. The environmental impact of energy use arises from depletion of available fuel
resources, or emissions from burning them. The emissions to air do not derive solely from
the use of fuel, but fuel combustion is a major contributing factor. Energy use in the
characterised Profile is also represented by Fossil Fuel Depletion. Fossil fuel depletion is
measured in Tonnes of Oil equivalent (toe), which is an amount of energy equal to 41.83 GJ.
It is calculated by converting the primary amount of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas,
23
used to provide the delivered energy into toe. Further details of this characterisation factor
are given in section 7 and Annex 11.
Feedstock energy
Feedstock energy is defined by ISO8as ‘the combustion heat of raw material inputs, which
are not used as an energy source’. BRE includes the feedstock energy of fossil fuels in its
primary energy calculations but does not include feedstock energy of non-economic fuels,
e.g. timber. Tillman9 has discussed the problems of accounting for inherent and feedstock
energy to avoid double counting.
The energy used in the extraction and processing of a material is sometimes defined as its
initial embodied energy to distinguish it from the energy used at other stages in the material
life cycle.
Although values for initial embodied energy may be calculated on a mass basis as part of
the unit process data, like other effects they must only be used within a system to make
comparisons of alternative functional units, i.e. designs of particular components, elements
or whole buildings with the same function. Once an element or building has been defined,
then the whole life of the materials and products can be included in the embodied energy
value - the energy used to extract, transport and process raw materials, to convert them into
manufactured products and components, to transport them to the construction site and
incorporate them into a building.
The definition in this methodology to be used for the embodied energy of a material over the
life of a building is:
The total primary energy that has to be sequestered from a stock within the earth in order to
produce, transport, maintain and dispose of the materials within a specified product,
component, element or building.
Many government initiatives are in place to reduce the energy use and CO2 emissions of
industry. Carbon dioxide, or "embodied carbon dioxide" data needs to be considered as
separate value because, although a major proportion is the result of the use of fuels of all
24
kinds, some processes in building material production release CO2 from carbonaceous
materials.
Calculation of values
The definition of ‘stock within the earth’ requires interpretation in order to determine which
input data should be aggregated to calculate a single value for embodied energy.
The interpretation adopted by IFIAS when concerns were first raised about the use of fossil
fuels required that only non-renewable hydrocarbons (and then confined to those which are
extracted as economic fuels) are included in the estimate. Fuel and energy use is converted
from delivered to primary terms and then only the energy obtained from fossil fuels, and not
that produced from renewable sources, is included in the aggregated estimate.
The term ‘embodied energy’ is effectively an accounting analysis and in no way refers to the
physical or chemical composition of the materials, and is not meant to imply that there is an
inherent energy content that can be recovered. In the calculation of embodied energy or
fossil fuel depletion, the energy of feedstocks is not included in the calculation apart from
that obtained from fossil hydrocarbons which are extracted as economic fuels e.g. oils. This
view is shared by the authors of the guidelines for the Athena project11,12. The impacts of the
use of organic materials as feedstock are addressed within the inventory.
1. the gross calorific value of economic fuels extracted from reservoirs within the UK or
imported in crude form into the UK
2. the thermal energy generated in nuclear power stations calculated as the gross
electricity generated divided by the average thermal efficiency of nuclear stations
3. refined fuels and electricity imported into the UK, counted as having the same embodied
energy per unit of fuel as those generated from primary stocks within the UK.
Carbon sequestration is considered over a timescale of 100 years (as are the impacts of
CO2 emissions in relation to their global warming potential). CO2 emissions arising from
Carbon sequestered after this date will not be considered, nor the carbon sequestration
associated with the emission.
One common factor for timber-based fuels (wood, bark, chips, sawdust, shavings etc) is that
the CO2 released when they are burnt has been absorbed (sequestered) from the
atmosphere and stored in the tree during growth. Had it not been released when the wood
was used for energy production, it would have been released during the biological
breakdown of the wood that would have taken place instead. The CO2 emissions from timber
that is burnt are therefore assumed to be zero, since the use of wood as fuel does not
25
contribute to the build up of CO2 in the atmosphere. For forestry, account is taken of the
emissions of methane arising from pruning, trimming, site clearance and felling. Where site
clearance involves the release of CO2 from, e.g. peat bogs, sequestered more than 100
years ago, this is also considered.
Timber cannot be assumed to be CO2 neutral according to the assumption above because
not all timber is burnt at the end of its life. Based on current BRE statistics, BRE assumes
that 80% of timber from buildings goes to landfill, whilst 15% is reclaimed and 5% is
incinerated. Of the timber that goes to landfill, it may be estimated from Municipal waste
figures 13 that half of the timber decomposes over one hundred years and the other half
remains inert. Of the decomposed timber, it is assumed methane and carbon will be
produced in roughly equal quantities, with some of the methane being burnt and converted
to CO2.
In the case of cement and lime, CO2 will be "carbonised" back into the mortar/cement after
manufacture. Again, this carbonation is considered over a 100 year timescale for the product
as constructed.
Lime carbonation is counted within the per tonne product data because the assimilation of
CO2 is a function of how the product behaves and happens in a short timescale. The factor
for carbonation will therefore be used at 100%, i.e. 0.785 t/tonne, considered as a property
of one tonne of lime at the factory gate. Further explanation is provided in Annex 7
For blocks, whilst the rate of carbonation is slower than for free lime, the rate of carbonation
is sufficiently fast for it to be assumed that carbonation will also take place at 100% for the
amount of free lime in one tonne of product and 65% of the cement content at the factory
gate.
For cement, carbonation is an unwelcome activity and one which happens slowly over the
life of the building. In this methodology, carbonation will only be considered for the whole
building element, because carbonation is greatest for the first 5 cm of concrete exposed to
the atmosphere. Thus the carbonation will be calculated for 5cm depth multiplied by the
surface area exposed for each concrete element over 60 years. Further explanation is
provided in Annex 7
6.7 Emissions
Emissions to air
Data for emissions to air derived from fuel use are based on the NATCEN conversion factors
provided in Annex 3. These are added to emission figures from the process. Emissions to air
are converted to kg of emission per tonne of product produced and presented individually.
As much detail is retained as possible. For example, if emissions are known for
"formaldehyde" and "VOCs" from a process, this is how they should be entered, even though
formaldehyde is a VOC.
Emissions to land
Emissions to land are the solid wastes derived from the process. These are currently
measured only in terms of the tonnes of waste produced and greenhouse gases emitted
from landfill and incineration. This position will be revised following further examination into
the impacts associated with the disposal of different materials in landfill and incinerators.
26
Waste may currently be entered onto the inventory Profiles as a detailed description of the
quantities of different waste types emitted.
Emissions to water
Data on emissions to water requested on the questionnaire receive no further manipulation
for the creation of the Profile. Data is entered onto the inventory Profile according to the
detail provided in the questionnaire. For the characterised Profile, data is incorporated into
the eutrophication and ecotoxicity to water categories.
6.8 Imports
The inputs and outputs attributed to imports of materials and products should, wherever
possible, be based upon analyses appropriate to the country of origin and will include the
energy of transportation. Where data for the country of origin are not available, the input and
output data should be based upon the closest domestically produced product with an
addition made for the transportation from the country of origin.
The exception to this is for imported refined fuels and electricity; these are attributed the
same environmental burdens as those generated from primary sources within the UK.
Delivered energy values (in GJ/tonne) represent the calorific value for the gross delivered
energy of the appropriate fuel. Gross calorific values include the quantity of heat necessary
to evaporate water present in the fuel during the combustion process. This is also termed
the higher heating value (HHV). The UK energy statistics on which BRE bases its
calculations are presented gross whereas international statistics are presented net or in
terms of the lower heating value; if these values are used they will be adjusted using the
conversion factors given in Annex 5.
27
7 IMPACT ASSESSMENT
All units of measurement must be recognised as proxies for both the activity that causes the
impacts and for the effects of an impact. In assessing environmental impacts, parameters
interact and there is no point at which cause starts and effects finish. Every effect becomes
the cause of additional impacts. Hence, the aim is to comprehensively account for all of the
burdens and impacts arising but avoid omissions or double counting. Many different impact
assessment methodologies have been developed and are available for use. Much of the
BRE methodology is based upon the work of Heijungs et al at CML, the University of Leiden
in the Netherlands. This team have a significant input to the work of the Society for
Ecological Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), a leading authority in life cycle analysis
development.
Classification
Classification is the process of allocating different environmental burdens (interventions) to
categories of impact.
BRE propose to follow international practice in the classification of inventory data into impact
categories. Data in the UK national database will be classified for its impacts on the
environment according to the following scheme:
28
Characterisation
Characterisation is the process of defining the contribution of an environmental burden
(intervention) to a particular category of impact. For each category, there may be one burden
which makes a contribution which is considered to have a contribution to that impact, or
'potency', of 1. Other burdens are provided with a potency factor relative to this.
Annex 11 shows the methods to be adopted to characterise data from the UK national
database for the potency of impacts on the environment. Work is continuing internationally
to develop improved methods of characterisation methods and BRE will continue to adapt to
appropriate international practice. Areas of particular weakness that have been identified are
human toxicity, ecotoxicity and ecological diversity.
Normalisation
In common with many other groups internationally, BRE will use normalisation of
impacts against the impacts arising from human activity. Normalisation entails
comparing the impacts arising from any activity (e.g. production of a tonne of material,
production of a kWh of electricity, providing laundry services for a hospital for a year) with
those from a common unit of activity – usually the impacts for an average citizen for a year.
This step reduces each impact to a dimensionless ratio and eliminates the problem of units
being widely variant between issues (e.g. kgCO2, tonnes of mineral extracted).
A table of the characterisation and normalisation factors used is provided in Annex 11.
The first set of sheets headed “Characterisation Factors” shows the parameters and values
used to assess the relative potency of the different emissions and consumption in terms of
the selected proxy measurement unit. The headings show the different issues addressed.
The second set of sheets headed “Normalisation Factors” shows how the total UK
emissions/consumption divided by the UK population gives the total UK impact per person.
These factors are then characterised to give the characterised impact for each impact per
person. The normalised impact is the characterised impact contributed by a material
expressed as a percentage of the characterised impact contributed by a UK citizen in one
year.
Gases recognised as having a "greenhouse" or radiative forcing effect include CFCs, HFCs,
N2O and methane. Their relative global warming potential (GWP) has been calculated by
comparing their direct and indirect radiative forcing to the emission of the same mass of CO2
29
after 100 years. E.g. CFC-11 is 3400 times more powerful as a greenhouse gas than CO2
and therefore one tonne of CFC-11 is equivalent to 3400 tonnes CO2. Global warming
potential is measured in CO2 equivalents for each emission, which can be added and
entered into the Profile under “Climate change” as CO2 equivalents (100yrs).
A timescale is applied to the GWP figure because the GWP of different gases is related to
the amount of time they will spend in the atmosphere and the amount of radiative forcing
they will induce over that period. It is important to recognise how long the gases will last in
the atmosphere. For example, both carbon dioxide and CFC-11 are greenhouse gases but
they have different half lives in the atmosphere and they will thus have a different relative
effect over different timescales. Three different scenarios are available for GWP: 20 years,
100 years and 500 years. The 100 year scenario is most commonly used and has been
applied here.
The subject of toxicity is a particularly complex area within impact assessment and a variety
of different techniques have been developed. The four categories proposed by Heijungs
(1992) at the University of Leiden for the CML method is the most widely accepted method
and BRE therefore advocate the use of this technique in the absence of more definitive
works. CML developed a provisional method of toxicological weighting factors. For human
toxicity these are then calculated as (human toxicological classification factor) x (kg body
weight/kg substance). The factors are based on tolerable concentrations in air, air quality
guidelines, tolerable daily intakes and acceptable daily intake.
30
BRE are paying close attention to developments in the field and are particularly interested in
the work of the World Health Organisation to develop Disability Adjusted Life years (DALYs)
and Percentage Affected Fractions (PAFs) for human and eco-toxic effects respectively.
Eutrophication KgPO4
Phosphate is the unit against which a number of emissions to air and water are measured
for their equivalent eutrophication or “nutrification” potential, leading to loss of biodiversity
through over-enrichment of water supplies. Species dependent on low-nutrient environments
are lost and algal blooms occur in water, increasing mortality of aquatic fauna and flora.
Ammonia, Nitrates, Nitrous Oxides and total Nitrogen and Phosphorous are included within
this part of the Profile. This characterisation factor is derived from the Dutch CML method.
This category is likely to be replaced by information on the per tonne impacts of waste
disposal in the UK, which is a mix of incineration and landfill.
31
Transport pollution & congestion tonne.km
This unit was chosen to reflect the impacts arising from the transport of freight world wide,
including ocean travel. It is particularly useful because it provides a figure for an impact over
which producers have direct control. Tonne.km reflect the local transport pollution,
congestion, noise, dust and discomfort to travellers and to those local to transport routes
especially roads. The characterisation factors used is 1, implying that all modes of tonne.km
are equally damaging. This characterisation factor will be the subject of future refinement. It
is recognised that transport associated with the production and construction of buildings is
also converted to emissions to atmosphere from the combustion of the fuel used and
Primary energy figures reflect the production of the fuel itself. Tonnes km is not displayed to
reflect these impacts, which are accurately accounted for within the other categories and
therefore does not produce a double counting effect.
32
8 REFERENCES
3. Connaughton J, Life Cycle Energy Costing, Building Services, October 1990 pp 34-36, in
Environmental Research Group, Building Materials in the Context of Sustainable
Development, Life Cycle Energy Use in Building Materials, Forintek Canada Corp.,
August 1994.
4. National Waste Classification Codes and Hazard Property Codes. EPA 1990 Special
Waste Regulations. September 1996
5. UK Transport Statistics
6. DUKES, 1997. Digest of UK Energy Statistics, 1997. Department of Trade and Industry.
9. Tillman A M, 1995. Energy in Life Cycle Assessment. In: Environmental data for building
materials in the Nordic countries. TemaNord 1995:577 Nordic Council of Ministers.
10. Chapman P F and Roberts F, 1983. Metal resources and energy. Butterworths.
11. Athena, 1993 Building materials in the context of sustainable development: research
guidelines. Annex in Phase III Summary Report. Forintek Canada Corporation and
Wayne B Trusty Associates Ltd.
12. Athena, 1997 Research Guidelines. January 1997 revision. Athena Sustainable
Materials Institute.
13. Royal Commission for Environment 1993 17th Report. HMSO, London.
14. SPOLD, 1997. (Society for Promotion of Life Cycle Development) Common Format for
LCI data. Av. E. Mounier 83, Box 1, B-1200 Brussels.
33
9 ANNEXES
GJ/per tonne
coal: average UK 26.4
power station 25.0
iron and steel 31.3
other industry 28.6
house coal 30.6
Anthracite 33.9
coke 28.1
coke breeze 24.8
other solid 27.9
industrial wood 11.9
straw 15.0
chicken litter 9.9
refuse derived waste 18.7
tyres 32.0
petroleum products: average UK 45.9
LPG 49.6
motor spirit 47.4
burning oil 46.5
gas/diesel oil 45.8
fuel oil 42.7
power station oil 42.7
orimulsion 29.8
MJ per cubic metre
natural gas 39.1
coke oven gas 31.3
blast furnace gas 42.2
landfill gas 38.6
sewage gas 38.6
Source: DUKES, 1997
34
A3 TOTAL AND UPSTREAM FUEL EMISSION FACTORS 1996
Figures from NETCEN National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory:
UK emissions of Air pollutants 1970-1996. (published January 1999).
Fuel Primary:delivered
Natural Gas 1.110
Petroleum Products 1.110
Coal 1.013
Coke, Coke Breeze and Coke Oven Gas 1.316
UK Electricity 3.083
Source: Based on DUKES 1997 and UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory 1996
35
A5 GROSS v NET CALORIFIC VALUES
Gross calorific values include the quantity of heat necessary to evaporate water present in
the fuel during the combustion process. Net values do not. UK energy statistics are
presented gross, whereas international statistics are presented net. If conversion is
required, the following approximate adjustments should be made.
Gross to Net
solid and liquid fuels (including wood) -5%
gases -10%
Source: DUKES, 1997
There are a number of units of energy used for collecting and publishing data. To convert
from one to the other, the following table should be used. To convert from the units on the
left hand side to the units across the top, multiply by the values in the table.
TO
FROM MJ GJ kWh therm BTU kcal Tonnes oil
equiv.
MJ 1 0.001 0.277 0.009 947.81 238.846 0.0000239
GJ 1000 1 277.78 9.4781 947,810 238,846 0.0239
KWh 3.6 0.0036 1 0.034121 3,412 859.8 8.598E-05
therm 105 0.10551 29.31 1 100000 25,200 0.00252
BTU 1.05E-03 1.0551E-06 2.931E-04 1.00E-05 1 0.2520 2.52E-08
Kcal 4.187E-03 4.187E-06 0.001163 3.97E-05 3.968 1 1.00E-07
Tonnes oil 41868 41.868 11630 396.8 39,682,909 10,000,000 1
equiv.
36
A7 CARBONATION CALCULATIONS
This annex sets out how the carbonation of materials is accounted for within the
Environmental Profiles methodology. The method set out here represents a first attempt to
incorporate the effects of carbonation into the life cycle of building materials and is likely to
be refined as understanding of this issue increases.
First principles
The amount of CO2 reacting with 1 tonne of pure CaO is 0.785 tonnes. This figure is derived
from the molecular mass of carbon dioxide divided by the molecular mass of calcium oxide.
The calcium content of Portland cement, expressed in terms of CaO, is typically about 65%.
This will mainly be in the form of calcium silicates with some calcium aluminate and free lime
as well as minor phases such as ferrite and gehlenite. The main products of cement
hydration are calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrates, together with small amounts
of calcium aluminate hydrates, calcium sulfoaluminate hydrates etc. All of these are prone
to carbonation and ultimately most of the CaO can be converted to CaCO3.
The potential amount of CO2 absorbed will therefore depend mainly on the amount of free
lime and the cement content (and its CaO content). Pfa and ggbs may increase the rate of
CO2 absorption although its contribution is likely to be small.
Pfa and ggbs will react with the cement, reducing the amount of Ca(OH) 2 present. However,
again the products will eventually carbonate. Ggbs and pfa may reduce slightly the amount
of CO2 absorbed but not to a significant extent within the accuracy of carbonation estimates.
Lime mortars carbonate over a period of months. Concrete can take decades to carbonate.
However, aerated concrete blocks are likely to carbonate comparatively quickly. The actual
amount that carbonates will depend on the environment - particularly the relative humidity
(RH) -and the lifetime of the material. If the RH is low then carbonation will be very slow. If
the material is fully saturated carbonation will also be slow as CO2 cannot penetrate into the
material. For concrete the maximum rate of carbonation occurs in the RH range 50 - 90%.
Chemical reaction may reduce the rate of carbonation but will not have a major effect on the
ultimate amount of carbon dioxide absorbed.
37
A8 TRANSPORT METHODOLOGY FOR CALCULATING FUEL USE.
Road
The assumptions to be used for Road Transport are listed below
A Annual Delivery Quantity
This is taken to be the annual input quantity of the product into the process, even where
more or less product has been delivered in the given period than has been used, due to
stockpiling, or no quantity is given
Transport is considered for all given inputs into the process, including fuels such as diesel
and LPG.
B Gross Laden Weight of Vehicle
Where data is given on the size of vehicle, it is taken to mean the GLW of the vehicle. The
maximum size of vehicle permitted on UK roads until 1999 was 38 tonnes, except for travel
to or from a railhead. Therefore, unless details of rail transport are also given, the maximum
size of vehicle is assumed to be 38 tonnes.
C Average Delivery Load
Where the average delivery load is not given, then it is calculated from DETR UK Transport
Statistics for the Gross Laden Weight of the Vehicle as given and for the type of load it is
carrying figure (taking account of part load % if necessary). If neither an Average Delivery
Load nor a Gross Laden Weight of Vehicle are given, then the Annual No of Deliveries is
used to calculate the Average Delivery Load. The Gross Laden Weight is then estimated
from this. If no Annual No of Deliveries is given either, then the most common form of
transport for that commodity is taken from UK Transport Statistics3.
D Annual No of Deliveries
Where this information is given, it is used to calculate the Average Delivery Load (A/D).
Where either the Gross Laden Weight of the Vehicle or Average Delivery Load have also
been given, then it is checked that the calculated average load agrees with the given
average load. If it is not given, then it is calculated (A/C).
E Delivery Distance
If this is not given, then it is taken as the “average haul” from the UK Transport Statistics for
the given vehicle type and commodity transported.
F Full or Part Load
Where the delivery is a full load, e.g this is the only delivery made on the outward trip, then
the load is 100%. Where the delivery is a part load, we have presented the information as
the percentage of the load taken by the given delivery. If no percentage has been given,
then it has been assumed to be 25%. For a part load, the fuel consumption is calculated in
exactly the same way as for a full load, but only the given percentage is allocated to the
product.
G Return Trip Empty or Full
Where no data has been given, the return trip has been assumed to be Empty.
For Empty trips, then the delivery distance is doubled to give the total distance travelled per
delivery. Part Loads are taken to be Empty Returns.
For Full trips, then the delivery distance is taken to be the total distance travelled per
delivery.
H Total Distance Travelled
If the Return Trip is Full then Total Distance Travelled = Delivery Distance (E). If the Return
Trip is Empty or the delivery is Part Load, then Total Distance Travelled = 2* Delivery
Distance (2E).
J Fuel Consumption
Taken from DETR UK Fuel Statistics for each class of vehicle (B), and converted to
litres/km.
38
Fuel Used = No of Deliveries * Distance Travelled * Part Load % * Fuel Consumption = D *
H*F*J
Rail
The various types of information which have been provided for Rail Transport are listed
below:
39
Shipping
The various types of information which have been provided for shipping are listed below:
40
A9 SOURCES OF LCA DATA
The primary sources of supplementary upstream life cycle inventory (LCI) data used in the
project are:
1. SimaPro
Pre Consultants B.V
Plotterweg 12
3821 BB Amersfoort
The Netherlands
www.pre.nl
www.ivambv.uva.nl
3 SBI Database
Danish Building Institute SBI
Produced for the Danish Government and published in 1998.
www.sbi.dk
41
A10 THE STANDARD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INVENTORY DATA COLLECTION.
QUESTIONNAIRE
This data will be used to calculate figures of inputs and outputs associated with the
production of one tonne of your products. This questionnaire requests the raw data
that will allow these calculations to be made.
An electronic version of this document is available. You may wish to customise this
questionnaire for your industry
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Please provide a PROCESS TREE containing information about the main process
and sub-processes involved, using the guidance attached. Information will be
collected for the overall process but it is important to produce a detailed flow chart to
aid the assessment of the data you provide and to ensure that the key processes
have been included.
42
2. PLANT INFORMATION
.............................................................................................................
Company address
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Telephone.......................................................
Fax.................................................................
Name of respondent…………………………………………………
3. QUALITY OF DATA
Age
Please indicate below the starting and end months and the year(s) in which the data
in this questionnaire was collected
Please indicate in the questionnaire where the age of specific data differs from that
stated above.
Source of data
Please provide information about the sources and derivation of all figures. Where
possible, include data ranges or other descriptions so that it is clear how any general
figures were calculated. Please state clearly whether the figures quoted are based
on measured or estimated values and the basis for both measurements and
estimations .
43
4. WORKS OUTPUT
Please enter all the principle outputs i.e. main products and any co-products of the
production site (not including material sent to waste disposal) and the annual
production of each. This information allows the burdens of production to be allocated
to co-products using physical relationships
1We ask about the value for each output (i.e. how much are you paid for each) as an
alternative means of allocation, should this be necessary. You do not need to give
this information now but in the future we may need to discuss how you can provide it
on a confidential basis.
5. WORKS INPUT
5 a) Materials
We are interested in all the inputs to the plant that are associated with your product.
Please include packaging materials and consumable items, as well as the
ingredients of your product. Please list all input materials even if you know you
cannot provide information about their manufacture before they reach you. Examples
are:
Raw materials:
Minerals - limestone, clay, silica, sand, gravel
Metallic minerals - zinc, alumina, iron ore
Wood materials - solid timber, sawmill chips, other residues (with
species where possible)
Fossil fuels used as feedstock materials rather than for energy
production - natural gas to make plastics, petroleum products to make
roofing materials
Processed materials:
screws, resins, paints
scrap and materials recycled from other processes
consumable items - sanding paper, drilling bits, detergents,
lubricating oils ( Note: this does not include the repair and
maintenance of machinery and vehicles)
Ancillary materials
Data is required for 98% of the materials input by mass. Data is thus also required for all
materials with a mass greater than 2% of the output from the process. Please also provide
information on materials which, although they contribute less than 2% by mass, may
possibly have significant effects in their extraction, their use or disposal, or are highly toxic or
classed as hazardous waste. For example, the adhesives which are used in the
manufacture of window frames are integral to the product and should be included even
though they account for less than 2% of the outputs (by mass).
44
Item Physical quantities
(specify units e.g. dry tonnes)
This may be achieved by more than one mode of transport. Please list these and
detail the mileage of each mode separately. Where more than one supplier is used
you may estimate the tonnage from each and indicate this on the table. The data for
each supplier can then be entered into the table.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Please enter the fuel purchased by your plant for one year. Include all fuels
purchased for the site, including fuels used for heating and lighting in buildings. It
will be useful to indicate what different fuels are used for. This helps to ensure all
are included. Please only include vehicle fuels used for transport on site.
45
external
waste2
(specify)
other
(specify)
1 if electricity is not purchased from the national supply, please indicate its source
2 for example, wood residues, secondary liquid fuels (SLF). For these fuels, provide
information about transport mode and distances in Table b)
5 d) Water Use
Please enter the water brought into the plant in the year.
5 e) Capital Equipment
Although it is a form of indirect energy input into the process, the contribution of
capital equipment is not normally considered in LCA and so it will not be included
here.
6. WORKS EMISSIONS/DISCHARGES
Emissions from a plant may be from more than one product. If you can allocate
emissions to specific products, by causal relationship, please attach a description of
the method used. If you cannot do this, please give emissions for the whole plant.
BRE will convert general fuel data to emissions using standard conversion figures.
Please tick the appropriate boxes in Table 5 c) if you wish to provide your own
emissions in the table below. Please enter these emissions and the fuel sources
beside your data entry in Table 6 a) below.
46
6 a) Emissions to Air
For the following categories, please list individual compounds wherever possible:
particulates (with percentage composition for each component)
volatile organic compounds
halogens
hydrocarbons e.g. methane
metals e.g. lead
6 b) Discharge to Water
47
detergents
phosphates
phenol and phenolic compounds
ammonia and ammonium compounds
halogenated and non-halogenated organics
chlorides
heated water
6 c) Solid Waste
Please provide a list of the main materials in the description of the wastes produced.
For special waste, it would be useful to use the National Waste Classification codes
and Hazard Property codes (EPA 1990 Special Waste Regulations September
1996).
48
A11 CHARACTERISATION FACTORS
Climate Change
Source: IPCC 1995 kg CO2 eq. (100years)/kg
9.1 Emissions to Air C2F6 9200
C3F8 7000
C4F10 7000
C5F12 7500
C6F14 7400
C-C4F8 8700
CCl4 -650
CF4 6500
CFC-11 2100
CFC-113 3600
CFC-114 7000
CFC-115 7000
CFC-12 7100
CFC-13 13000
CH2 Cl2 9
CH3 CCl3 -320
CH4 21
CHCl3 4
CO2 1
HALON-1211 4900
HALON-1301 -86400
HCFC-123 50
HCFC-124 430
HCFC-141b 370
HCFC142b 1700
HCFC-22 1400
HFC-125 2800
HFC-134 1000
HFC-134a 1300
HFC-143 300
HFC-143a 3800
HFC152a 140
HFC-227ea 2900
HFC-23 11700
HFC-236fa 6300
HFC-245ca 560
HFC-32 650
HFC-41 150
HFC-43-10mee 1300
N2O 310
SF6 23900
Acid Deposition
Source: Heijungs kgSO2 eq./kg
Emissions to Air HCl 0.88
HF 1.6
NH3 1.88
49
NO 1.07
NO2 0.7
Nox (as NO2 ) 0.7
SO2 1
Ozone Depletion
Source: Montreal Protocol kgCFC11
eq./kg
Emissions to Air CCl4 1.1
CFC-11 1
CFC-113 0.8
CFC-114 1
CFC-115 0.6
CFC-12 1
CFC-13 1
CH3 CCl3 0.1
CHCl3 0.12
HALON-1201 1.4
HALON-1202 1.25
HALON-1211 3
HALON-1301 10
HCFC-123 0.006
HCFC-124 0.04
HCFC-141b 0.11
HCFC142b 0.065
HCFC-22 0.055
Other CFC 1
Human Toxicity
Source: Heijungs kg.tox/kg
Emissions to Air 124trimethylbenzene 3.9
22dimethylpropane 0.022
2methylhexane 1.6
2methylpentane 0.022
3methylhexane 1.6
3methylpentane 0.022
4methylpentan2one 0.022
Acetone 0.022
Acetylene 0.022
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 3.9
As 4700
Ba 1.7
Benzene 3.9
But2ene 0.022
Butan2one 0.022
Butane 0.022
Butanols 0.022
Butylacetate 0.022
CCl4 1.9
Cd 580
CFC-11 0.022
CFC-113 0.022
50
CFC-114 0.022
CFC-115 0.022
CFC-12 0.022
CFC-13 0.022
CFC-502 0.022
CH2 Cl2 0.069
CH2 Cl2 0.069
CH3 CCl3 2.4
CHCl3 1.2
Co 24
CO 0.012
Cr 6.7
Cu 0.24
Cypermethrin 0.67
Dichofluanid 0.11
Dioxin 3300000
Ethane 0.022
Ethanol 0.022
Ethene 0.022
Ethylacetate 0.022
Ethylbenzene 3.9
Fe 0.042
Formaldehyde 0.022
Glycols 0.0083
Glyphosphate 0.11
HALON-1201 0.022
HALON-1202 0.022
HALON-1211 0.022
HALON-1301 0.022
HCFC-123 0.022
HCFC-124 0.022
HCFC-141b 0.022
HCFC142b 0.022
HCFC-22 0.022
Heptane 1.6
Hexane 0.022
HF 0.48
HFC-125 0.022
HFC-134 0.022
HFC-134a 0.022
HFC-143 0.022
HFC-143a 0.022
HFC152a 0.022
HFC-227ea 0.022
HFC-23 0.022
HFC-236fa 0.022
HFC-245ca 0.022
HFC-32 0.022
HFC-41 0.022
HFC-43-10mee 0.022
Hg 120
Isobutane 0.022
51
Isopentane 0.022
Lindane 0.047
Malathion 1.7
Methylheptanes 1.6
m-ethyltoluene 3.9
Mn 120
Mo 3.3
m-xylene 2.2
NH3 0.02
Ni 470
NMVOC 0.022
NOx (as NO2) 0.78
Octane 1.6
Other CFC 0.022
Other HCFC 0.022
Other paraffins 0.022
Other unknown VOC 0.022
Other VOC 0.022
o-xylene 2.2
Paraquat 8.3
Pb 160
PCB's 370
Pent2ene 0.022
Pentane 0.022
Pentane isomers 0.022
Permethrin 0.67
p-ethyltoluene 3.9
Pimiricarb 1.7
Propan1ol 0.022
Propan2ol 0.022
Propane 0.022
Propylene 0.022
p-xylene 2.2
RH 0.022
Simazine 17
Sn 0.017
SO2 1.2
Tetrachloroethene 0.047
Toluene 0.039
Trichloroethene 0.061
Triflorine 1.7
V 120
White spirit 0.022
Xylenes 2.2
Zn 0.033
Emissions to Water Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 0.0019
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 0.66
As 1.4
Atrazine 0.57
Azinphos-methyl 1.1
Ba 0.14
CCl4 0.71
52
Cd 2.9
CH2 Cl2 0.048
CHCl3 0.095
Co 2
Cr 0.57
Cu 0.02
Cypermethrin 0.058
DDT 0.14
Dichlorvos 0.71
Dichofluanid 0.0095
Dioxin 290000
Drins 29
Endosulfan 0.48
Ethyl benzene 0.021
Fe 0.0036
Fenitrothion 0.57
Fenthion 2.9
Glyphosphate 0.0095
Hexachlorobenzene 5.7
Hexachlorobutadiene 2.9
Hg 4.7
Lindane 2.9
Malathion 0.14
Mo 0.29
Ni 0.057
Nitrate 0.00078
Nitrite 0.022
Orthophosphate 0.000041
Paraquat 0.71
Parathion 0.57
Parathion-methyl 0.14
Pb 0.79
PCB's 32
Pentachlorophenol 0.095
Permethrin 0.057
Pesticides 2.9
Pimiricarb 0.14
Simazine 1.4
Sn 0.0014
Tetrachloroethene 0.18
Tributyltin 5.7
Trichlorobenzene 5.7
Trichloroethane 0.2
Trichloroethene 0.2
Trifluralin 0.14
Triphenyltin 5.7
Zn 0.0029
53
22dimethylpropane 0.398
2methylhexane 0.492
2methylpentane 0.524
3methylhexane 0.492
3methylpentane 0.431
4methylpentan2one 0.326
Acetone 0.178
Acetylene 0.168
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 0.761
Benzene 0.189
But2ene 0.992
Butan2one 0.326
Butane 0.41
Butanols 0.196
Butylacetate 0.323
CCl4 0.021
CFC-11 0.021
CFC-113 0.021
CFC-114 0.021
CFC-115 0.021
CFC-12 0.021
CFC-13 0.021
CFC-502 0.021
CH2 Cl2 0.021
CH3 CCl3 0.021
CH4 0.007
CHCl3 0.001
Ethane 0.082
Ethanol 0.268
Ethene 1
Ethylacetate 0.218
Ethylbenzene 0.593
Formaldehyde 0.421
Glycols 0.196
HALON-1201 0.021
HALON-1202 0.021
HALON-1211 0.021
HALON-1301 0.021
HCFC-123 0.021
HCFC-124 0.021
HCFC-141b 0.021
HCFC142b 0.021
HCFC-22 0.021
Heptane 0.529
Hexane 0.421
HFC-125 0.021
HFC-134 0.021
HFC-134a 0.021
HFC-143 0.021
HFC-143a 0.021
HFC152a 0.021
HFC-227ea 0.021
54
HFC-23 0.021
HFC-236fa 0.021
HFC-245ca 0.021
HFC-32 0.021
HFC-41 0.021
HFC-43-10mee 0.021
Isobutane 0.315
Isopentane 0.296
Methylheptanes 0.469
m-ethyltoluene 0.794
m-xylene 0.993
NMVOC 0.416
Octane 0.493
Other CFC 0.021
Other HCFC 0.021
Other paraffins 0.761
Other unknown VOC 0.337
Other VOC 0.337
o-xylene 0.666
PCB's 0.021
Pent2ene 0.93
Pentane 0.408
Pentane isomers 0.296
p-ethyltoluene 0.725
Propan1ol 0.196
Propan2ol 0.196
Propane 0.42
Propylene 1.03
p-xylene 0.888
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 0.398
Tetrachloroethene 0.005
Toluene 0.563
Trichloroethene 0.066
White spirit 0.761
Xylenes 0.888
Eutrophication
Source: Heijungs kg.PO4
eq./kg
Emissions to Air N2O 0.13
NH3 0.35
NO 0.2
NO2 0.13
NOx (as NO2) 0.13
Emissions to Water Ammoniacal N 0.33
BOD 0.11
COD 0.022
Nitrate 0.1
Orthophosphate 1
Total Nitrogen 0.42
Ecotoxicity
55
3
Source: Heijungs m /mg
Emissions to Water Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 0.05
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 0.029
As 0.2
Atrazine 5
Azinphos-ethyl 100
Azinphos-methyl 100
CCl4 0.0074
Cd 200
CH2 Cl2 0.00094
CHCl3 0.17
Co 1
Cr 1
Cu 2
Cypermethrin 250
DDT 1.3
Dichlorvos 2000
Dioxin 1400
Drins 53
Endosulfan 100
Ethyl benzene 0.023
Fenitrothion 100
Fenthion 250
Hexachlorobenzene 53
Hexachlorobutadiene 11
Hg 500
Lindane 2.5
Malathion 67
Ni 0.33
Parathion 250
Parathion-methyl 8.3
Pb 2
PCB's 100
Pentachlorophenol 5.6
Permethrin 710
Pesticides 2.5
Simazine 1
Tetrachloroethene 0.02
Tributyltin 250
Trichlorobenzene 0.83
Trichloroethane 0.00028
Trichloroethene 0.046
Trifluralin 5
Triphenyltin 20
Zn 0.38
56
Minerals Extracted Stone/rock 1
Clays/earth 1
Sand/gravel 1
Others 1
Population Nos.
UK 58,801,500
GB 57,138,200
England & Wales 52,010,200
UK Unit Per UK Citizen
Air Pollution CO2 574750 000's t 9774.411 kg/person
CO 4641 000's t 78.92656 kg/person
CH4 3712 000's t 63.12764 kg/person
Nox (as NO2) 2052 000's t 34.89707 kg/person
NMVOC 2030 000's t 34.52293 kg/person
SO2 2026 000's t 34.4549 kg/person
Particulates 356 000's t 6.054267 kg/person
other unknown VOC 279 000's t 4.744777 kg/person
other VOC 257 000's t 4.370637 kg/person
PM10 213 000's t 3.622357 kg/person
butane 191.51 000's t 3.25689 kg/person
N2O 189 000's t 3.214204 kg/person
toluene 136.36 000's t 2.318988 kg/person
white spirit 98.62 000's t 1.677168 kg/person
ethanol 98.02 000's t 1.666964 kg/person
pentane 88.32 000's t 1.502002 kg/person
propane 76.29 000's t 1.297416 kg/person
ethene 65.53 000's t 1.114427 kg/person
isopentane 55.31 000's t 0.940622 kg/person
isobutane 44.52 000's t 0.757124 kg/person
hexane 43.43 000's t 0.738587 kg/person
p-xylene 42.08 000's t 0.715628 kg/person
benzene 41.33 000's t 0.702873 kg/person
other parrafins 40.33 000's t 0.685867 kg/person
m-xylene 39.21 000's t 0.66682 kg/person
xylenes 35.29 000's t 0.600155 kg/person
57
o-xylene 32.62 000's t 0.554748 kg/person
ethane 31.33 000's t 0.53281 kg/person
propylene 30.35 000's t 0.516143 kg/person
acetylene 29.58 000's t 0.503048 kg/person
trichloroethene 26.23 000's t 0.446077 kg/person
heptane 26.21 000's t 0.445737 kg/person
formaldehyde 25.76 000's t 0.438084 kg/person
methylheptanes 24.79 000's t 0.421588 kg/person
124trimethylbenzen 23.87 000's t 0.405942 kg/person
e
propan2ol 23.52 000's t 0.39999 kg/person
ethylbenzene 22.62 000's t 0.384684 kg/person
acetone 22.3 000's t 0.379242 kg/person
propan1ol 21.66 000's t 0.368358 kg/person
octane 19.73 000's t 0.335536 kg/person
CH3CCl3 19.64 000's t 0.334005 kg/person
RH 17.93 000's t 0.304924 kg/person
2methylpentane 16.32 000's t 0.277544 kg/person
pentane isomers 15.72 000's t 0.26734 kg/person
CH2Cl2 14.84 000's t 0.252375 kg/person
4methylpentan2one 14.16 000's t 0.24081 kg/person
butan2one 14 000's t 0.238089 kg/person
glycols 11.96 000's t 0.203396 kg/person
22dimethylpropane 11.79 000's t 0.200505 kg/person
butylacetate 11.55 000's t 0.196424 kg/person
ethylacetate 11.48 000's t 0.195233 kg/person
but2ene 11.39 000's t 0.193703 kg/person
CCl4 11.32 000's t 0.192512 kg/person
tetrachloroethene 10.93 000's t 0.18588 kg/person
ArH 10.76 000's t 0.182989 kg/person
3methylpentane 10.49 000's t 0.178397 kg/person
butanols 9.02 000's t 0.153397 kg/person
3methylhexane 8.05 000's t 0.136901 kg/person
pent2ene 7.82 000's t 0.13299 kg/person
m-ethyltoluene 7.52 000's t 0.127888 kg/person
p-ethyltoluene 7.47 000's t 0.127038 kg/person
2methylhexane 7.35 000's t 0.124997 kg/person
HCFC-22 6.817 000's t 0.115932 kg/person
HCFC-141b 3.761 000's t 0.063961 kg/person
HCFC142b 1.316 000's t 0.02238 kg/person
CFC-12 1.112 000's t 0.018911 kg/person
Pb 1.1 000's t 0.018707 kg/person
Other HCFC 0.559 000's t 0.009507 kg/person
CFC-11 0.293 000's t 0.004983 kg/person
CFC-502 0.172 000's t 0.002925 kg/person
CF4 0.079 000's t 0.001344
CFC-114 0.07 000's t 0.00119 kg/person
SF6 0.035 000's t 0.000595 kg/person
CFC-113 0.03 000's t 0.00051 kg/person
Other CFC 0.025 000's t 0.000425 kg/person
58
Pollution to Particulates 1770 000's t 30.10127 kg/person
Water
Total Nitrogen 305 000's t 5.186943 kg/person
Ammoniacal 63.5 000's t 1.079904 kg/person
Nitrogen
orthophosphate 30.4 000's t 0.516994 kg/person
Zn 2.1 000's t 0.035713 kg/person
Simazine 1.895 tonnes 3.22E-05 kg/person
Atrazine 1.435 tonnes 2.44E-05 kg/person
Azinphos-methyl 0.87 tonnes 1.48E-05 kg/person
Dichlorvos 0.825 tonnes 1.4E-05 kg/person
Azinphos-ethyl 0.72 tonnes 1.22E-05 kg/person
Fenitrothion 0.64 tonnes 1.09E-05 kg/person
Parathion-methyl 0.605 tonnes 1.03E-05 kg/person
Malathion 0.6 tonnes 1.02E-05 kg/person
Fenthion 0.555 tonnes 9.44E-06 kg/person
Trifluralin 0.485 tonnes 8.25E-06 kg/person
Cu 0.459 000's t 0.007806 kg/person
Drins 0.405 tonnes 6.89E-06 kg/person
Cr 0.321 000's t 0.005459 kg/person
Ni 0.3197 000's t 0.005437 kg/person
Lindane 0.3125 tonnes 5.31E-06 kg/person
Pb 0.309 000's t 0.005255 kg/person
Parathion 0.17 tonnes 2.89E-06 kg/person
DDT 0.16 tonnes 2.72E-06 kg/person
Tributyltin 0.155 000's t 0.002636 kg/person
Endosulfan 0.13 tonnes 2.21E-06 kg/person
As 0.0855 000's t 0.001454 kg/person
CHCl3 0.0544 000's t 0.000925 kg/person
CH2Cl2 0.04915 000's t 0.000836 kg/person
Cd 0.01905 000's t 0.000324 kg/person
trichloroethene 0.01495 000's t 0.000254 kg/person
tetrachloroethene 0.01355 000's t 0.00023 kg/person
CCl4 0.00875 000's t 0.000149 kg/person
trichloroethane 0.0087 000's t 0.000148 kg/person
Hg 0.0033 000's t 5.61E-05 kg/person
pentachlorophenol 0.00299 000's t 5.08E-05 kg/person
trichlorobenzene 0.00145 000's t 2.47E-05 kg/person
Pesticides 0.001356 000's t 2.31E-05 kg/person
PCB's 0.000741 000's t 1.26E-05 kg/person
hexachlorobenzene 0.000135 000's t 2.3E-06 kg/person
Hexachlorobutadien 0.000125 000's t 2.13E-06 kg/person
e
Triphenyltin 0.00008 000's t 1.36E-06 kg/person
Mineral
Extraction
Stone/rock 175481 000's t 2.984295 t/person
Clays/earth 17251 000's t 0.293377 t/person
Sand/gravel 96000 000's t 1.632611 t/person
Others 7600 000's t 0.129248 t/person
Total 296332 000's t 5.039531 t/person
59
Fossil Fuel Extraction
Coal 46009 000's toe 0.782446 toe/person
Oil 109338 000's toe 1.859442 toe/person
Gas 84886 000's toe 1.443603 toe/person
Total Fossil 240233 000's toe 4.085491 toe/person
60
A12 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILES DATABASE
All the information collected in the process is entered into an initial database that processes
the data to the desired “per tonne” format. Thus BRE retains a record of the raw data and
can easily update it with any changes industry partners may provide. It is this processed
data, combined or adapted to produce UK average figures for generic building materials and
calculated to include upstream impacts that are the subject of the following databases. BRE
have created a series of databases to satisfy the varying needs of construction
professionals. To assist in the comprehension of these Profiles, characterised data as well
as inventory data is available. The method used is the result of work undertaken at BRE for
DETR, ‘Eco-points –a consensus for building’.
The data in the databases D1 and 2 are not available to the public. However, with the
permission of the data providers, this data can be transferred into D3 and D4:
61
access. The individual data contributions from each component material are hidden within
the element.
62
A13 INVENTORY PROFILE FORMAT
APPROVED
ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE
Environmental Profile of Inventory Data Manufacture of 1 tonne/1 m3 [product]
for:
Quality of data
Start Date
End Date
Source of data e.g. aggregated responses of average data from 5
UK manufacturers
Geography e.g. UK
INVENTORY
Inputs
Materials Input tonnes
Water Use m3
Water from Water Company m3
Outputs
Product tonnes
Co-products, by products, other output for tonnes
recycling/reuse
Emissions to Air grams
Emissions to Surface Water
Water discharged to surface m3
E.g. suspended solids mg
Emissions to Sewer
Water discharged to sewer mg
Emissions to Land
Emissions to landfill kg
Emissions to incinerator kg
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NOTES on Annex 13 'BRE Approved Environmental Profile' for Inventory data.
This Profile can be used for D1 and D3, Materials and Components Inventory Data, D5
Installed Element Inventory Data and D7 60 year Element Inventory Data.
1) This title contains a reference to the product as it is officially recognised, including British
Standard numbers where appropriate. For elements, this will refer to the major products of
which the element is comprised.
The title may also contain a reference to a generic product, such as mineral wool, which
contains the average available figures from a number of plants making a wide range of
mineral wool products. At a later date, such information may be broken down into more
specific categories using the density of different products.
2) Quality of data. This is an abbreviated, user friendly format of the requirements proposed
by SPOLD, the Society for the Promotion of Life Cycle Development14 .
Age, source, geography and the representativeness of the process are shown. For the data
collected by BRE through this project, the latter will be “UK average data”, from a varying
proportion of UK industry. For elements, this information will be referenced to the major
products of which the element is comprised.
LCA methodology refers to the assumptions and standard conversion figures adopted by
BRE in the BRE Methodology for Environmental Profiles of Construction Materials,
Components and Buildings.
The “allocation” entry allows transparency by showing the allocation procedures used for
different products.
3) Materials input will refer to all products contributing over 2% of the final mass of the
product and those which contribute less but which have a significant environmental impact.
Packaging materials are listed separately. This Profile includes the environmental data from
the key input materials.
5) Energy sources are listed by type and quantity to recognise the resource depletion
associated with their use.
6) Outputs refer to the main product and associated by-products, produced as a result of the
manufacture of the main product and to which an allocation of the burdens of the process
must be made.
5) Electricity and other fuels are listed individually with their energy content in MJ.
8) Emissions to water usually take place over a range of concentrations. These figures
represent total mass of emission based on median concentration and total emission to
water.
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A14 CHARACTERISED AND NORMALISED DATAPROFILE FORMAT
Approved
Environmental Profile
Environmental 1 tonne of product/
Profile of 1 square metre of building
Characterised and element installed/
Normalised data for: 1 square metre of building
element 60 year life
Quality of Data
Start date
End date
Source of Data
Geography
Representativeness
LCA Methodology
Allocation
Date of Data Entry
Boundaries
Comments
ISSUES UNITS CHARACTERISED
DATA
Climate Change kgCO2 eq. (100yr))
Acid Deposition kgSO2 eq
Ozone Depletion kg CFC11 eq
Pollution to Air: Human Toxicity kg.tox.
Pollution to Air: Low level Ozone Creation kg ethene eq.(POCP)
Fossil Fuel Depletion and Extraction tonnes oil eq.
Pollution to Water: Human Toxicity kg.tox.
Pollution to Water: Ecotoxicity m 3 tox
Pollution to Water: Eutrophication kgPO4 eq
Minerals Extraction tonnes
Water Extraction litres
Waste Disposal tonnes
Transport Pollution & Congestion: Freight tonne.km
ONE UK CITIZEN NORMALISED
ISSUES DATA
Climate Change 12270 kgCO2 eq. (100yr))
Acid Deposition 58.88 kgSO2 eq
Ozone Depletion 0.29 kg CFC11 eq
Pollution to Air: Human Toxicity 90.7 kg.tox.
Pollution to Air: Low level Ozone Creation 32.23 kg ethene eq.
(POCP)
Fossil Fuel Depletion and Extraction 4.085 tonnes oil eq.
Pollution to Water: Human Toxicity 0.02746 kg.tox.
Pollution to Water: Ecotoxicity 837600 m 3 tox
Pollution to Water: Eutrophication 8.006 kgPO4 eq
Minerals Extraction 5.04 tonnes
Water Extraction 417600litres
Waste Disposal 7.194 tonnes
Transport Pollution & Congestion: Freight 4140.84 tonne.km
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