75.intelligent Automatic Street Light Control System Using High Sensitivity LDR

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com, CONTACT: +91-- 9491535690, +91-- 7842358459 INTELLIGENT AUTOMATIC STREET LIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM USING HIGH SENSITIVITY LDR
Automatic Street Light Control System is a simple yet powerful concept, which uses transistor as a switch. By using this system, manual work is eliminated upto the maximum extent. It automatically switches ON the street lights when the sunlight goes below the visible region of our eyes. This is done by a sensor called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses the light actually like our eyes. It automatically switches OFF lights whenever the intensity of sunlight is highly sufficient for the person to see.
By using this system, energy consumption is also reduced because nowadays the manually operated street lights are switched off late in the morning and are switched on early before sunset. This project clearly demonstrates the working of transistor in saturation region and cutoff region and also the working of all the components is clearly explained in this project.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: +Vcc
N/O
Rs
R1 Relay
Common N/C
Power
LDR
GND
Step down T/F
Bridge Rectifier
Filter Circuit
Regulator Power supply to all sections
BLOCK DESCRIPTION:
POWER SUPPLY: The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.
230V AC 50Hz
D.C Output
Step down transformer
Bridge Rectifier Regulator Filter
Fig: Power supply Transformer: Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to

the required voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required level.
Rectifier: The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. Filter: Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage. Voltage regulator: As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels. KIND OF RESISTORS 1. CARBON FILM The carbon film type is the most popular resistor type. This resistor is made by depositing a carbon film onto a small ceramic cylinder. A small spiral groove cut into the film controls the amount of carbon between the leads, hence setting the resistance. Such resistors show excellent reliability, excellent solderability, noise stability,

moisture stability, and heat stability. Typical power ratings range from 1/4 to 2 W. Resistances range from about 10 Ohm to 1 Mega ohm, with tolerances around 5 percent.
2. CARBON COMPOSITION This type is also popular. It is made from a mixture of carbon powder and glue like binder. To increase the resistance, less carbon is added. These resistors show predictable performance, low inductance, and low capacitance. Power ratings range from about 1/4 to 2 W. Resistances range from 1 Ohm to about 100 Mega ohms, with tolerances around +/- 5 percent.
3. METAL OXIDE FILM This type is general purpose resistor. It uses a ceramic core coated with a metal oxide film. These resistors are mechanically and electrically stable and readable during high temperature operation. They contain a special paint on their outer surfaces making them resistant to flames, solvents, heat, and humidity. Typical resistances range from 1 Ohm to 200 kilo ohm, with typical tolerances of +/- 5 percent.
4. PRECISION METAL FILM This type is very accurate, ultra low noise resistor. It uses a ceramic substrate coated with a metal film, all encased in an epoxy shell. These resistors are used in precision devices, such as test instruments, digital and analog devices, and audio and video devices. Resistances range from about 10 Ohm to 2 MOhm, with power rating from 1/4 to about 1/2 W, and tolerances of +/- 1 percent.
5. FOIL RESISTORS Foil resistors are similar in characteristics to metal film resistors. Their main advantages are better stability and lower temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). They have excellent frequency response, low TCR, good stability, and are very accurate. They are manufactured by rolling the same wire materials as used in precision wire wound resistors to make thin strips of foil. This foil is then bonded to a ceramic substrate and etched to produce the value required. They can be trimmed further by abrasive processes, chemical machining, or heat treating to achieve the desired tolerance. Their main disadvantage is that the maximum value is less than metal film resistors. The accuracy is about the same as metal film resistors, the TCR and stability approaches precision wire wounds but are somewhat less because the rolling and packaging processes produce stresses in the foil. The resistive materials used in precision wire wound resistors are very sensitive to stresses, which result in instability and higher TCS. Any stresses on these materials will result in a change in the resistance value and TCR, the greater the stresses, the larger the change. This type can be used as strain gauges, strain being measured as a change in the resistance. When used as a strain gauge, the foil is bonded to a flexible substrate that can be mounted on a part where the stress is to be measured. 6. FILAMENT RESISTORS Filament resistors are similar to bathtub or boat resistors except that they are not packaged in a ceramic shell (boat). The individual resistive element with the leads

already crimped is coated with an insulating material, generally a high temperature varnish. They are used in applications where tolerance, TCR, and stability are not important but the cost is the governing consideration. The cost of this type is slightly higher that of carbon composition and the electrical characteristics are better. 7. POWER FILM Power film resistors are similar in manufacture to metal film or carbon film resistors. They are manufactured and rated as power resistors, with the power rating being the most important characteristic. Power film resistors are available in higher maximum values than the power wire wound resistors and have a very good frequency response. They are generally used in applications requiring good frequency response and/or higher maximum values. Generally, for power applications the tolerance is wider. The temperature rating is changed so that under full load, the resistor will not exceed the maximum design temperature. The physical sizes are larger and, in some cases, the core may be made from a more head conductive material and other means employed to help radiate heat. 8. PRECISION WIRE WOUND The precision wire wound resistor is a highly accurate resistor (within 0.005%) with a very low TCR. A TCR as little as 3ppm/oC can be achieved. However these components are too expensive for general use and are normally used in highly accurate dc applications. 9. HIGH POWER WIRE WOUND These resistors are used for high power applications. Types include vitreous enamel coated, cement, and aluminum housed wire wound resistors. Resistive elements are made from a resistive wire that is coiled around a ceramic cylinder. These are the most durable of the resistors, with high heat dissipation and high temperature stability. Resistances range from 0.1 Ohm to about 150 kilo ohms, with power ratings from around 2 W to as high as 500 W, or more.
10. PHOTORESISTORS AND THERMISTORS These are special types of resistors that change resistance when heat or light is applied. Photoresistors are made from semiconductive materials, such as cadmium sulfide. Increasing the light level will decrease the resistance. This type also called LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). Thermistors are temperature sensitive resistors. Increasing the temperature will decrease the resistance (in most cases). This type also called Thermistor NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient). The reciprocal type is Thermistor PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient). Increasing the temperature will increase its resistance.
12. VARIABLE RESISTORS

Variable resistors provide varying degrees of resistance that can be set with the turn of a knob. Special kinds of variable resistors include potentiometers, rheostats, and trimmers. Potentiometers and rheostats are essentially the same thing, but rheostats are used specially for high power AC electricity, whereas potentiometers typically are used with lower level DC electricity. Both potentiometers and rheostats are designed for frequent adjustment. Trimmers, on the other hand, are miniature potentiometers that are adjusted infrequently and usually come with pins that can be inserted into PCB. They are used for fine tuning circuits (eg. fine tuning a circuit that goes astray as it ages), and they are usually hidden within a circuits enclosure box. Variable resistors come with 2 or 3 terminals. There are 2 kinds of taper, ie., linear tapered and nonlinear tapered (logarithmic). The 'taper' describes the way in which the resistance changes as the control knob is twisted. Linear taper usually has coded as 'A' while nonlinear tapes has coded as 'B'.
NPN GENERAL PURPOSE TRANSISTORS BC546; BC547 FEATURES
Low current (max. 100 mA) Low voltage (max. 65 V).

APPLICATIONS
General purpose switching and amplification.

DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
LIMITING VALUES
In accordance with the Absolute Maximum Rating System (IEC 134). 1. Transistor mounted on an FR4 printed-circuit board. SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN. MAX. UNIT VCBO collector-base voltage open emitter BC546 - 80 V BC547 - 50 V VCEO collector-emitter voltage open base BC546 - 65 V BC547 - 45 V VEBO emitter-base voltage open collector BC546 - 6 V BC547 - 6 V www.svsembedded.com SVSEMBEDDEDsvsembedded@gmail.com, CONTACT: +91-- 9491535690, +91-- 7842358459
www.svsembedded.com SVSEMBEDDEDsvsembedded@gmail.com, CONTACT: +91-- 9491535690, +91-- 7842358459 IC collector current (DC) - 100 mA ICM peak collector current - 200 mA IBM peak base current - 200 mA Ptot total power dissipation Tamb 25 C; note 1 - 500 mW Tstg storage temperature -65 +150 C Tj junction temperature - 150 C Tamb operating ambient temperature -65 +150 C
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TRANSISTOR:

In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. The transistor is the fundamental building block of computers, and all other modern electronic devices. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits. INTRODUCTION: An electrical signal can be amplified by using a device that allows a small current or voltage to control the flow of a much larger current. Transistors are the basic devices providing control of this kind. Modern transistors are divided into two main categories: bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field effect transistors (FETs). Applying current in BJTs and voltage in FETs between the input and common terminals increases the conductivity between the common and output terminals, thereby controlling current flow between them. The characteristics of a transistor depend on its type. The term "transistor" originally referred to the point contact type, which saw very limited commercial application, being replaced by the much more practical bipolar

junction types in the early 1950s. Today's most widely used schematic symbol, like the term "transistor", originally referred to these long-obsolete devices. In analog circuits, transistors are used in amplifiers, (direct current amplifiers, audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers), and linear regulated power supplies. Transistors are also used in digital circuits where they function as electronic switches, but rarely as discrete devices, almost always being incorporated in monolithic integrated circuits. Digital circuits include logic gates, random access memory (RAM), microprocessors and digital signal processors (DSPs).
IMPORTANCE: The transistor is considered by many to be the greatest invention of the twentieth century. It is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process (fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually-packaged (known as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors produced are in integrated circuits (often abbreviated as IC and also called microchips or simply chips) along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors (MOSFETs). "About 60 million transistors were built this year [2002] ... for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth." The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it a universal device for non-mechanical tasks, such as digital computing. Transistorized mechatronics circuits have replaced electromechanical devices for the control of appliances and machinery as well. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.

Because of the low cost of transistors and hence digital computers, there is a trend to digitize information, such as the Internet Archive. With digital computers offering the ability to quickly find, sort and process digital information, more and more effort has been put into making information digital. As a result, today, much media data is delivered in digital form, finally being converted and presented in analog form to the user. Areas influenced by the Digital Revolution include television, radio and newspapers. Advantages The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are:
Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices.
Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered applications.
No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices produced more than 30 years ago are still in service.
Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementarysymmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
Though in most transistors the junctions have different doping levels and geometry, some allow bidirectional current flow.
Ability to control very large currents, as much as several hundred amperes. Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of microphonics in audio applications.
More sensitive than the hot and macroscopic tubes.

Disadvantages
Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1 kV, SiC go to 3 kV.
The electron mobility is higher in a vacuum, so that high power, high frequency operation is easier in tubes.
Silicon transistors, compared to vacuum tubes, are highly sensitive to electromagnetic pulses.
Types
PNP
P-channel
NPN
N-channel
BJT
JFET
Transistors are categorized by:
Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide, etc.
Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types" Polarity: NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs) Maximum power rating: low, medium, high Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency (RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition". The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain).
Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair
Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, power modules
Amplification factor hfe (transistor beta).
Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch. NPN TRANSISTORS: An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitterbase junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the baseemitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base. The base region of the transistor must be made thin, so that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime, to minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collectorbase junction. To ensure this, the thickness of the base is much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collectorbase junction is reverse-biased, so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collectorbase junction.
NPN BJT with forward-biased EB junction and reverse-biased BC junction TRANSISTORS IN CIRCUITS The diagram shown is a schematic representation of an npn transistor connected to two voltage sources. To make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1 mA) from C to E, VBE must be above a minimum value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is usually about 600 mV for silicon BJTs, but can be different depending on the current level selected for the application and the type of transistor. This applied voltage causes the lower p-n junction to 'turn-on' allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. Because of the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by VCE), the majority of these electrons cross the upper p-n junction into the collector to form the collector current, IC. The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, IB . As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, IE, is the total transistor current which is the sum of the other terminal currents. That is:
In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of the electric or conventional currentthe flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows since electrons carry negative electric charge. The ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain. This gain is usually quite large and is often 100 or more.

It should also be noted that the emitter current is related to VBE exponentially. At room temperature, increasing VBE by about 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. The base current is approximately proportional to the emitter current, so it varies the same way.
Structure and use of npn transistor
Regions of operation
Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined mostly by applied bias:
Forward-active (or simply, active): The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the base-collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, f, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collector-emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.
Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverseactive mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Since most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the f in inverted mode is several (2 - 3 for the ordinary germanium transistor) times smaller. This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.
Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector. This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.
Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current flow, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.
Avalanche breakdown region
While these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region
Bipolar junction transistor

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be massproduced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named emitter, base and collector. Two p-n junctions exist inside a BJT: the base/emitter junction and base/collector junction. "The [BJT] is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by the relatively small base current." In an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased base-collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Unlike the FET, the BJT is a lowinput-impedance device. Also, as the baseemitter voltage (Vbe) is increased the baseemitter current and hence the collectoremitter

current (Ice) increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET. Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, since absorption of photons in the base region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately beta times the photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called phototransistors.
Semiconductor material
The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge) and some high power types still are. Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental. Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the table below; it must be noted that these parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain and various other factors:
Semiconductor material characteristics

Junction forward voltage V @ 25 C 0.27 0.71 1.03 Electron Hole mobility mobility m/(Vs) @ 25 m/(Vs) @ 25 C C 0.39 0.14 0.85 0.19 0.05 0.05
Semiconductor material
Max. junction temp. C
Ge
70 to 100 150 to 200 150 to 200 150 to 200
Si GaAs
Al-Si junction 0.3
The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is approximately 2.1 mV/C. The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior. The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:

Its maximum temperature is limited. It has relatively high leakage current. It cannot withstand high voltages. It is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar NPN transistor tends to be faster than an equivalent PNP transistor type. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has double the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. Max. Junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged. Al-Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum-silicon) semiconductor-metal barrier diode, commonly known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.
Usage
In the early days of transistor circuit design, the bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for digital and analog circuits because of their ease of manufacture and speed. However, desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power devices, have made them the ubiquitous choice for use in digital circuits and a very common choice for use in analog circuits.
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration
Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration
Switches Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic gates. Amplifiers From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Transistors are commonly used in modern musical instrument amplifiers, in which circuits up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively cheap. Transistors have largely replaced valves (electron tubes) in instrument amplifiers. Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, to utilize the inherent benefits of both devices.
Computers The "first generation" of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of heat, were bulky, and were unreliable. The development of the transistor was key to computer miniaturization and reliability. The "second generation" of computers, through the late 1950s and 1960s featured boards filled with individual transistors and magnetic memory cores. Subsequently, transistors, other components, and their necessary wiring were integrated into a single, massmanufactured component: the integrated circuit. HOW A TRANSISTOR WORKS? A transistor may be used to switch or to amplify. The image to the right represents a typical transistor in a circuit. Its three components are the Base, Emitter and Collector which correspond to regions of the mixed semiconductors from which the transistor is made. Current may flow from the Emitter to the Collector depending on the voltage applied to the Base, but only if this voltage exceeds a certain value this is depicted in the graph below at A and is referred to as Vbe.
Simple circuit using a transistor

Transistor as an amplifier
A varying base voltage, Vin, as long as it exceeds Vbe, controls current through the transistor and thus influences the output voltage Vout. The slope of the graph is such that small swings in Vin will produce large changes in Vout. This occurs because the base voltage controls how much of the power supply voltage Vcc causes current through the transistor itself, and how much of it causes current through a load driven by Vout. It is important that the operating parameters of the transistor are chosen and the circuit designed such that as far as possible the transistor operates within a linear portion of the graph, such as that shown between A and B, otherwise the output signal will suffer distortion.
Transistor as a Switch
Operation graph of a transistor It can be seen from the graph that once the Base voltage reaches a certain level, shown at B, no more current will flow and the output will be held at a fixed voltage. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.
IN 4007 DIODE Features:

Diffused Junction High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak Low Reverse Leakage Current Plastic Material: UL Flammability Classification Rating 94V-0
APPLICATION:
Single phase, half wave, 50Hz, and resistive or inductive load. For capacitive load, derate current by 20%.
Forward Voltage Drop, Vf

Notice that the diode conducts a small current in the forward direction up to a threshold voltage, 0.3 for germanium and 0.7 for silicon ; after that it conducts as we might expect. The forward voltage drop, Vf, is specified at a forward current, If.
Leakage current
In the reverse direction there is a small leakage current up until the reverse breakdown voltage is reached. This leakage is undesirable, obviously the lower the

better, and is specified at a voltage less the than breakdown; diodes are intended to operate below their breakdown voltage.
Current Rating
The current rating of a diode is determined primarily by the size of the diode chip, and both the material and configuration of the package, Average Current is used, not RMS current. A larger chip and package of high thermal conductivity are both conducive to a higher current rating.
Switching
The switching speed of a diode depends upon its construction and fabrication. In general the smaller the chip the faster it switches, other things being equal. The reverse recovery time, trr, is usually the limiting parameter; trr is the time it takes a diode to switch from on to off.
IC 7805
7805 IC is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage
regulator. It supports an input voltage of 10 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts. It has a current rating of 1 amp although lower current models are available. Its output voltage is fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also has a built-in current limiter as a safety feature. 7805 is manufactured by many companies, including National
Semiconductors and Fairchild Semiconductors. The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot.The last two digits represent the voltage; for instance, the 7812 is a 12-volt regulator. The 78xx series of regulators is designed to work in complement with the 79xx series of negative voltage regulators in systems that provide both positive and negative regulated voltages, since the 78xx series can't regulate negative voltages in such a system. The 7805 & 7812 is one of the most common and well-known of the 78xx series regulators, as it's small component count and medium-power regulated 5V make it useful for powering TTL devices.
SPECIFICATIONS Vout Vin - Vout Difference
IC 7805 5V
IC 7812 12V
5V - 20V 5V - 20V
Operation Ambient Tmp 0 - 125C 0 - 125C Output Imax 1A 1A
Light-emitting diode (LED)

Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics. They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources- bulbs at first place. They perform similar to common diodes with the difference that they emit light when current flows through them.
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colour it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of 20mA. Low Current diodes get full

brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones. Since the 8051 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct connecting to LEDs is carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to output pin).
Potentiometer
Fig: Variable resistor
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are connected across the power supply, then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.
Potentiometer Symbol
Presets These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.
Preset Symbol
RELAYS: A relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls, automobiles and appliances. The relay allows the isolation of two separate sections of a system with two different voltage sources i.e., a small amount of voltage/current on one side can handle a large amount of voltage/current on the other side but there is no chance that these two voltages mix up.
Inductor
Fig: Circuit symbol of a relay
Operation: When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is created around the coil i.e., the coil is energized. This causes the armature to be attracted to the coil. The armatures contact acts like a switch and closes or opens the circuit. When the coil is not energized, a spring pulls the armature to its normal state of open or closed. There are all types of relays for all kinds of applications.
Fig: Relay Operation and use of protection diodes

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced when the relay coil is switched off. The above diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. The diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction occurs only when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment the current tries to flow continuously through the coil and it is safely diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing. In choosing a relay, the following characteristics need to be considered: 1. The contacts can be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). In the NC type, the contacts are closed when the coil is not energized. In the NO type, the contacts are closed when the coil is energized. 2. There can be one or more contacts. i.e., different types like SPST (single pole single throw), SPDT (single pole double throw) and DPDT (double pole double throw) relays. 3. The voltage and current required to energize the coil. The voltage can vary from a few volts to 50 volts, while the current can be from a few milliamps to 20milliamps. The relay has a minimum voltage, below which the coil will not be energized. This minimum voltage is called the pull-in voltage. 4. The minimum DC/AC voltage and current that can be handled by the contacts. This is in the range of a few volts to hundreds of volts, while the current can be from a few amps to 40A or more, depending on the relay.
LDR:
LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
When the light level is low the resistance of the LDR is high. This prevents current from flowing to the base of the transistors. Consequently the LED does not light.
However, when light shines onto the LDR its resistance falls and current flows into the base of the first transistor and then the second transistor. The LED glows.
WORKING PROCEDURE:
LDR offers Very high Resistance in darkness. In this case the voltage drop across the LDR is more than 0.7V. This voltage is more sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation region. In saturation region, Ic (Collector current) is very high. Because of this Ic, The relay gets energized, and switches on the lamp.
LDR offers Very low Resistance in brightness. In this case the voltage drop across the LDR is less than 0.7V. This voltage is not sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation region. Hence, the transistor will be in cut-off region. In cut-off region, Ic (Collector current) is zero. Because of this Ic, The relay will not be energized, and the lamp will be in ON state only. Diode is connected across the relay to neutralize the reverse EMF generated.

75.intelligent Automatic Street Light Control System Using High Sensitivity LDR

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75.intelligent Automatic Street Light Control System Using High Sensitivity LDR

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Step down T/F

Regulator Power supply to all sections

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Step down transformer

Bridge Rectifier Regulator Filter

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12. VARIABLE RESISTORS

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NPN GENERAL PURPOSE TRANSISTORS BC546; BC547 FEATURES

Low current (max. 100 mA) Low voltage (max. 65 V).

General purpose switching and amplification.

NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.

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BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TRANSISTOR:

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More sensitive than the hot and macroscopic tubes.

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Transistors are categorized by:

Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide, etc.

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Amplification factor hfe (transistor beta).

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Structure and use of npn transistor

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Avalanche breakdown region

Bipolar junction transistor

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Semiconductor material characteristics

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Max. junction temp. C

70 to 100 150 to 200 150 to 200 150 to 200

Al-Si junction 0.3

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