PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Chapter 8
Capacitors, Inductors and Transformers

Mahesh Thilakasiri (Bsc-Eng)
AMIESL(Electrical and Electronics Engineer)
CAPACITORS
The Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive components.
In its most basic form, it is composed of two plates separated
by a dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of capacitance.
Dielectric
Conductors
The Capacitor
Dielectric
Plates
Leads
Electrons
B A

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

Initially uncharged
+
B A

+
+
+

+
+
+
+
Charging
+
B A
V
S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Fully charged
B A
V
S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Source removed
The charging
process
A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage
Q
C
V
=
Rearranging, the amount of charge on a capacitor is
determined by the size of the capacitor (C) and the voltage
(V).
Q CV =
If a 22 F capacitor is connected to a 10 V
source, the charge is
220 C
Capacitance
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established
by the opposite charges on the two plates. The energy of a charged
capacitor is given by the equation
Capacitance
2
2
1
CV W =
where
W = the energy in joules
C = the capacitance in farads
V = the voltage in volts
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on three physical
characteristics.
12
8.85 10 F/m
r
A
C
d
c

| |
=
|
\ .
C is directly proportional to
and the plate area.
the relative dielectric constant
C is inversely proportional to
the distance between the plates
Capacitance
12
8.85 10 F/m
r
A
C
d
c

| |
=
|
\ .
Find the capacitance of a 4.0 cm diameter sensor
immersed in oil if the plates are separated by 0.25 mm.
The plate area is
The distance between the plates is
Capacitance
( )
4.0 for oil
r
c =
( )
( )
3 2
12
3
4.0 1.26 10 m
8.85 10 F/m
0.25 10 m
C

| |

|
= =
|

\ .
3
0.25 10 m

178 pF
( )
2 2 3 2
0.02 m 1.26 10 m A r t

= = =
Capacitor labeling
Capacitors use several labeling methods. Small capacitors values
are frequently stamped on them such as .001 or .01, which have units of
microfarads.
+
+
+
+
V
T
T
V
T
T
4
7

M
F
.
0
2
2
Electrolytic capacitors have larger values, so are read
as F. The unit is usually stamped as F, but some older ones
may be shown as MF or MMF).
A label such as 103 or 104 is read as 10x10
3
(10,000 pF) or
10x10
4
(100,000 pF) respectively. (Third digit is the
multiplier.)
Capacitor labeling
When values are marked as 330 or 6800, the units are picofarads.
What is the value of each
capacitor?
Both are 2200 pF.

2
2
2
2
2
0
0
Series capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is
smaller than the smallest one. The general equation for capacitors in
series is
T
1 2 3 T
1
1 1 1 1
...
C
C C C C
=
+ + + +
The total capacitance of two capacitors is
T
1 2
1
1 1
C
C C
=
+
or you can use the product-over-sum rule
Series capacitors
If a 0.001 F capacitor is connected in series
with an 800 pF capacitor, the total capacitance is
444 pF
0.001F 800pF
C
1
C
2
Parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the
sum of the individual capacitors. The general equation for capacitors in
parallel is
T 1 2 3
...
n
C C C C C = + + +
1800 pF
If a 0.001 F capacitor is
connected in parallel with an 800
pF capacitor, the total capacitance
is
0.001F 800pF
C
1
C
2
Capacitors in dc circuits
When a capacitor is charged through a
series resistor and dc source, the
charging curve is exponential.
C
R
I
initial
t 0
(b) Charging current
V
final
t 0
(a) Capacitor charging voltage
Capacitors in dc circuits
When a capacitor is discharged through a
resistor, the discharge curve is also an
exponential. (Note that the current is
negative.)
t
t
I
initial
0
(b) Discharging current
V
initial
0
(a) Capacitor discharging voltage
C
R
Capacitors in dc circuits
The same shape curves are seen if a
square wave is used for the source.
V
S

V
C

V
R

C
R
V
S
What is the shape of the
current curve?
The current has the same shape as V
R
.
Capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to ac by a capacitor.
The equation for capacitive reactance is
1
2
C
X
fC
=
The reactance of a 0.047 F capacitor when a frequency of 15
kHz is applied is
226 O
Capacitive phase shift
When a sine wave is
applied to a capacitor,
there is a phase shift
between voltage and
current such that current
always leads the
voltage by 90
o
.
V
C
0
I
0
90
o
INDUCTORS
Inductance is the property of a conductor to oppose
a change in current. The effect of inductance is
greatly magnified by winding a coil on a magnetic
material.
Inductance
Common symbols for inductors (coils) are
Air core Iron core Ferrite core Variable
Self Inductance
Self-inductance is usually just called inductance,
symbolized by L. Self-inductance is a measure of a coils
ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of a
change in its current. The induced voltage always opposes
the change in current, which is basically a statement of
Lenzs law.
The unit of inductance is the henry (H). One henry is the
inductance of a coil when a current, changing at a rate of
one ampere per second, induces one volt across the coil.
Self Inductance
The induced voltage is given by the formula
dt
di
L v =
ind
What is the inductance if 37 mV is induced
across a coil if the current is changing at a rate of
680 mA/s?
54 mH
ind
dt
di
v
L =
dt
di
L v =
ind
Rearranging,
= =
A/s 68 . 0
V 037 . 0
Factors affecting inductance
Four factors affect the amount of inductance for a
coil. The equation for the inductance of a coil is
2
N A
L
l

=
where
L = inductance in henries
N = number of turns of wire
= permeability in H/m (same as Wb/At-m)
l = coil length on meters
What is the inductance of a 2.0 cm long,
150 turn coil wrapped on an low carbon steel core
that is 0.50 cm diameter? The permeability of low
carbon steel is 2.5 x10
4
H/m (Wb/At-m).
( )
2
2 5 2
0.0025 m 7.85 10 m A r

= = =
2
N A
L
l

=
22 mH
( )
( )( )
2
4 5 2
150 t 2.5 10 Wb/At-m 7.85 10 m
0.020 m


=
=
Series inductors
When inductors are connected in series, the total
inductance is the sum of the individual inductors.
The general equation for inductors in series is
2.18 mH
T 1 2 3
...
n
L L L L L = + + +
If a 1.5 mH inductor is
connected in series with
an 680 H inductor, the
total inductance is
L
1
L
2
1.5mH 680H
Parallel inductors
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total
inductance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for inductors in parallel is
The total inductance of two inductors is
or you can use the product-over-sum rule.
T
1 2 3 T
1
1 1 1 1
...
L
L L L L
=
+ + + +
T
1 2
1
1 1
L
L L
=
+
Inductors in dc circuits
When an inductor is connected
in series with a resistor and dc
source, the current change is
exponential.
I
initial
t 0
Current after switch closure
V
final
t 0
Inductor voltage after switch closure
R
L
Inductors in dc circuits
The same shape curves are
seen if a square wave is
used for the source.
V
S

V
L

V
R

R
L
V
S
Inductive reactance
Inductive reactance is the opposition to
ac by an inductor. The equation for
inductive reactance is
The reactance of a 33 H inductor when a
frequency of 550 kHz is applied is 114 O
2
L
X fL =
Inductive phase shift
When a sine wave
is applied to an
inductor, there is a
phase shift between
voltage and current
such that voltage
always leads the
current by 90
o
.
V
L
0
0
90

I
TRANSFORMERS
The basic transformer is formed from two coils that are
usually wound on a common core to provide a path for
the magnetic field lines. Schematic symbols indicate the
type of core.
Basic Transformer
Air core Ferrite core Iron core
Small power transformer
The direction of the windings determines the polarity of
the voltage across the secondary winding with respect to
the voltage across the primary. Phase dots are
sometimes used to indicate polarities.
Direction of windings
In phase Out of phase
120 V
rms
V
pri
In a step-up transformer, the secondary voltage is
greater than the primary voltage and n > 1.
Step-up and step-down transformers
In a step-down transformer, the secondary voltage is
less than the primary voltage and n < 1.
What is the secondary voltage?
4:1
? 30 V
rms
What is the turns ratio? 0.25
A special transformer with a turns ratio of 1 is called an
isolation transformer. Because the turns ratio is 1, the
secondary voltage is the same as the primary voltage,
hence ac is passed from one circuit to another.
Isolation transformers
The purpose of an isolation transformer is to break a dc
path between two circuits while maintaining the ac path.
The DC is blocked by the transformer, because the
magnetic flux is not changing.
Transformers cannot increase power. If the secondary
voltage is higher than the primary voltage, then the
secondary current must be lower than the primary
current and vice-versa.
Current
pri
sec
I
n
I
=
The ideal transformer turns ratio equation for
current is
Notice that the primary
current is in the numerator.
The ideal transformer does not dissipate power. Power
delivered from the source is passed on to the load by the
transformer. This important idea can be summarized as
Power
pri sec
pri pri sec sec
pri
sec
pri sec
P P
V I V I
I
V
V I
=
=
=
These last ratios are, of
course, the turns ratio, n.
A transformer changes both the voltage and current on
the primary side to different values on the secondary
side. This makes a load resistance appear to have a
different value on the primary side.
From Ohms law,
and
pri
sec
pri L
pri sec
V
V
R R
I I
= =
Taking the ratio of R
pri
to R
L
,
2
1 1 1
=
pri pri
sec
L sec pri
R V
I
R V I n n n
| |
| |
| || |
= =
|
|
| |
|
\ .\ .
\ .
\ .
Reflected resistance
Reflected resistance
The resistance seen on the primary side is called the
reflected resistance.
2
1
pri L
R R
n
| |
=
|
\ .
If you look into the primary side of the circuit, you
see an effective load that is changed by the reciprocal
of the turns ratio squared.
You see the primary
side resistance, so the
load resistance is
effectively changed.
R
L

Non-ideal transformers
An ideal transformer has no power loss; all power applied to the
primary is all delivered to the load. Actual transformers depart from
this ideal model. Some loss mechanisms are:
Winding resistance (causing power to be dissipated in the
windings.)
Hysteresis loss (due to the continuous reversal of the magnetic
field.)
Core losses due to circulating current in the core (eddy currents).
Flux leakage flux from the primary that does not link to the
secondary
Winding capacitance that has a bypassing effect for the windings.
Transformer efficiency
100%
out
in
P
P
q
| |
=
|
\ .
120 V
rms
V
pri
What is the efficiency of the transformer?
R
L
100 O
15 V
rms
20 mA
( )( )
( )( )
2
2
15 V
100
100% 100% 94%
120 V 0.020 A
L
L
pri pri
V
R
V I
| |
| |
|
O
|
= = =
|
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
94%