Chapter 5

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Chapter Goals

Explore the physical structure of bipolar transistor

Study terminal characteristics of BJT.

Explore differences between npn and pnp transistors.

Develop the Transport Model for bipolar devices.

Define four operation regions of the BJT.

Explore model simplifications for the forward active region.

Understand the origin and modeling of the Early effect.

Present a PSPICE model for the bipolar transistor. Discuss

bipolar current sources and the current mirror.
Physical Structure

The BJT consists of 3 alternating layers

of n- and p-type semiconductor called
emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

The majority of current enters collector,

crosses the base region and exits through
the emitter. A small current also enters
the base terminal, crosses the base-
emitter junction and exits through the
emitter.

Carrier transport in the active base

region directly beneath the heavily
doped (n
+
) emitter dominates the i-v
characteristics of the BJT.
Transport Model for the npn Transistor

The narrow width of the base

region causes a coupling between
the two back to back pn junctions.

The emitter injects electrons into

base region; almost all of them
travel across narrow base and are
removed by collector.
Base-emitter voltage v
BE
and
base-collector voltage v
BC

determine the currents in the
transistor and are said to be
positive when they forward-
bias their respective pn
junctions.

The terminal currents are the

collector current(i
C
), the base
current (i
B
) and the emitter
current (i
E
).

The primary difference between

the BJT and the FET is that i
B
is
significant, while i
G
= 0.
npn Transistor: Forward Characteristics
Forward transport current is
I
S
is saturation current
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
BE
v
S
I
F
i
C
i
A
1
11 A
11
11

S
I
V
T
= kT/q =0.025 V at room temperature
Base current is given by
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
BE
v
F
S
I
F
F
i
B
i


11
F
111is forward current gain
Emitter current is given by
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ 1 exp
T
V
BE
v
F
S
I
B
i
C
i
E
i

1 . 1
1
11 . 1
+

F
F
F

In this forward active operation region,

F
B
i
C
i

F
E
i
C
i

npn Transistor: Reverse Characteristics
Reverse transport current is
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
BC
v
S
I
E
i
R
i
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
BC
v
R
S
I
R
R
i
B
i

20 0
R

Emitter current is given by

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
BC
v
R
S
I
C
i

95 . 0
1
0
+

R
R
R

is reverse current gain

Base current is given by
Base currents in forward and reverse modes
are different due to asymmetric doping
levels in the emitter and collector regions.
npn Transistor: Complete Transport
Model Equations for Any Bias

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

1 exp exp exp

T
V
BC
v
R
S
I
T
V
BC
v
T
V
BE
v
S
I
C
i

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ 1 exp exp exp

T
V
BE
v
F
S
I
T
V
BC
v
T
V
BE
v
S
I
E
i

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ 1 exp 1 exp
T
V
BC
v
R
S
I
T
V
BE
v
F
S
I
B
i

The first term in both the emitter and collector current expressions gives
the current transported completely across the base region.
Symmetry exists between base-emitter and base-collector voltages in
establishing the dominant current in the bipolar transistor.
pnp Transistor: Operation
The voltages v
EB
and v
CB
are positive when they forward bias their
respective pn junctions.

Collector current and base current exit the transistor terminals and
emitter current enters the device.
pnp Transistor: Forward Characteristics
Forward transport current is:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
EB
v
S
I
F
i
C
i
Base current is given by:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
EB
v
F
S
I
F
F
i
B
i

Emitter current is given by:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ + 1 exp
1
1
T
V
EB
v
F
S
I
B
i
C
i
E
i

pnp Transistor: Reverse Characteristics

Reverse transport current is:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
CB
v
S
I
E
i
R
i
Base current is given by:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
CB
v
R
S
I
R
F
i
B
i

Emitter current is given by:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ 1 exp
1
1
T
V
CB
v
R
S
I
C
i

pnp Transistor: Complete Transport

Model Equations for Any Bias

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

1 exp exp exp

T
V
CB
v
R
S
I
T
V
CB
v
T
V
EB
v
S
I
C
i

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ 1 exp exp exp

T
V
EB
v
F
S
I
T
V
CB
v
T
V
EB
v
S
I
E
i

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ 1 exp 1 exp
T
V
CB
v
R
S
I
T
V
EB
v
F
S
I
B
i

Circuit Representation for Transport
Models
In the npn transistor (expressions analogous for the pnp transistors), total
current traversing the base is modeled by a current source given by:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

T
V
BC
v
T
V
BE
v
S
I
R
i
F
i
T
i exp exp
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ 1 exp 1 exp
T
V
BC
v
R
S
I
T
V
BE
v
F
S
I
B
i

Diode currents correspond directly to the 2 components of base current.
Operation Regions of the Bipolar
Transistor
Base-emitter junction Base-collector junction
Reverse Bias Forward Bias
Forward Bias Forward ac tive region
(Normal active region)
(Good Amplifier)
Saturation region
(Not same as F ET
saturation region)
(Closed switch)
Reverse Bias Cutoff region
(Open switch)
Reverse-active region
(Inverse active region)
(Poor amplifier)
i-v Characteristics Bipolar Transistor:
Common-Emitter Output Characteristics
For i
B
=0, the transistor is cutoff. If i
B
>0, i
C

also increases.
For v
CE
> v
BE
, the npn transistor is in the
forward active region, i
C
=
F
i
B
is independent
of v
CE.
.
For v
CE
< v
BE
, the transistor is in saturation.
For v
CE
< 0, the roles of collector and emitter
are reversed.
i-v Characteristics of Bipolar Transistor:
Common-Emitter Transfer Characteristic
This characteristic defines the relation
between collector current and base-emitter
voltage of the transistor.
It is almost identical to the transfer
characteristic of a pn junction diode.
Setting v
BC
=0 in the collector-current
expression:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1 exp
T
V
BE
v
S
I
C
i
Junction Breakdown Voltages

If reverse voltage across either of the two pn junctions in the transistor

is too large, the corresponding diode will break down.

The emitter is the most heavily doped region, and the collector is the
most lightly doped region.

Due to these doping differences, the base-emitter diode has a relatively

low breakdown voltage (3 to 10 V). The collector-base diode is
typically designed to break down at much larger voltages.

Transistors must therefore be selected in accordance with the possible

reverse voltages in circuit.
Simplified Forward-Active Region Model
In the forward-active region, the base-emitter junction is forward-biased
and the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. v
BE
> 0, v
BC
< 0
If we assume that
then the transport model terminal current equations simplify to:
V 1 . 0
4
>
q
kT
BE
v V 1 . 0
4
<
q
kT
BC
v

i
C
I
S
exp
v
BE
V
T





_
,



+
I
S

R
I
S
exp
v
BE
V
T





_
,



i
E

I
S

F
exp
v
BE
V
T





_
,



+
I
S

I
S

F
exp
v
BE
V
T





_
,



i
B

I
S

F
exp
v
BE
V
T





_
,

I
S

I
S

I
S

F
exp
v
BE
V
T





_
,



B
i
F E
i
B
i
F C
i
E
i
F C
i
) 1 ( +

The BJT is often considered a current-controlled current source, although

fundamental forward active behavior suggests a voltage-controlled current
source.
Simplified Circuit Model for Forward-
Active Region

Current in the base-emitter diode is amplified by the common-emitter

current gain
F
and appears at the collector

The base and collector currents are exponentially related to the base-emitter
voltage.

The base-emitter diode is often replaced by a constant voltage drop model

(V
BE
= 0.7 V), since it is forward-biased in the forward-active region.
Simplified Forward-Active Region Model
(Analysis Example)

Problem: Find Q-point

Given data:
F
= 50, V
BC
=V
B
- V
C
= -9 V
Assumptions: Forward-active region of operation, V
BE
= 0.7 V

Analysis:
Biasing for BJT

The goal of biasing is to establish a known Q-point, which in

turn establishes the initial operating region of transistor.
In BJT circuits, the Q-point is represented by (V
CE
, I
C
) for the
npn transistor or (V
EC
, I
C
) for the pnp transistor.

In general, during circuit analysis, we use a simplified

mathematical relationships derived for the specified
operation region of the transistor.

The practical biasing circuits used with BJTs are:

The Four-Resistor Bias network

The Two-Resistor Bias network

Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT
1 1
1
R R
R
CC
V
EQ
V
+

1 1
1 1
R R
R R
EQ
R
+

E
I
E
R
BE
V
B
I
EQ
R
EQ
V + +


I
C

F
I
B
111A


I
E
(
F
+1)I
B
111A


V
CE
V
CC
R
C
I
C
R
E
I
E
V
CC
R
C
+
R
E

F






_
,




I
C
. 111V
Q-point is (4.32 V, 201 A)

F
11
BE Loop
CE Loop
Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT
(Check Analysis)
All calculated currents > 0, V
BC
= V
BE
- V
CE
= 0.7 - 4.32 = - 3.62 V

Hence, the base-collector junction is reverse-biased and the assumption

of forward-active region operation is correct.

The load-line for the circuit is:

V
CE
V
CC
R
C
+
R
F

F






_
,




I
C
1111,111I
C
The two points needed to plot the load
line are (0, 12 V) and (314 A, 0). The
resulting load line is plotted on the
common-emitter output characteristics
for I
B
= 2.7 A.
The intersection of the corresponding
characteristic with the load line
determines the Q-point.
Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT:
Design Objectives

From the BE loop analysis, we know that

This will imply that I
B
<< I
2
so that I
1
= I
2
to good approximation in the
base voltage divider. Then the base current doesnt disturb the voltage
divider action, and the Q-point will be approximately independent of
base voltage divider current.
Also, V
EQ
is designed to be large enough that small variations in the
assumed value of V
BE
wont have a significant effect on I
B
.

Base voltage divider current is limited by choosing

This ensures that power dissipation in base bias resistors is < 17 % of
the total quiescent power consumed by the circuit, while I
2
>> I
B
.

I
B

V
EQ
V
BE
R
EQ
+(
F
+1)R
E

V
EQ
V
BE
(
F
+1)R
E

R
EQ
<<(
F
+1)R
E
for
5 /
2 C
I I
Four-Resistor Bias Network for BJT:
Design Guidelines
Choose I
2
= I
C
/5. This means that (R
1
+R
2
) = 5V
CC
/I
C
.
Let I
C
R
C
=I
E
R
E
= (V
CC
- V
CE
)/2. Then R
C
= (V
CC
- V
CE
)/2I
C
; R
E
=
F
R
C
If R
EQ
<<(
F
+1)R
E
, then I
E
R
E
= V
EQ
- V
BE
.
Then (V
CC
- V
CE
)/2 = V
EQ
- V
BE
, or V
EQ
= (V
CC
- V
CE
+ V
BE
)/2.
Since V
EQ
= V
CC
R
1
/(R
1
+R
2
) and (R
1
+R
2
) = 5V
CC
/I
C
,
Then R
2
= 5V
CC
/I
C
- R
1
.
Check that R
EQ
<<(
F
+1)R
E
. If not, adjust bullets 1 and 2 above.

Note: In the LabVIEW bias circuit design VI (NPNBias.vi), bullet 1

is called the Base Margin and bullet 2 is called the C-E V(oltage)
Drops.

R
1

V
CC
V
CE
+ 2V
BE
2V
CC



_
,

5V
CC
I
C



_
,

5
V
CC
V
CE
+ 2V
BE
2I
C



_
,

Problem 5.87 4-R Bias Circuit Design
Two-Resistor Bias Network for BJT:
Example

Problem: Find the Q-point for the pnp transistor in the 2-resistor bias
circuit shown below.
Given data:
F
= 50, V
CC
= 9 V
Assumptions: Forward-active region operation with V
EB
= 0.7 V

Analysis:
Q-point is : (6.01 mA, 2.87 V)
PNP Transistor Switch Circuit Design
Emitter Current for PNP Switch Design
BJT PSPICE Model

Besides the capacitances which are

associated with the physical structure,
additional model components are: diode
current i
S
, capacitance C
JS
, related to the
large area pn junction that isolates the
collector from the substrate and one
transistor from the next.
R
B
is the resistance between external
base contact and intrinsic base region.
Collector current must pass through R
C

on its way to the active region of the
collector-base junction.
R
E
models any extrinsic emitter
resistance in the device.
BJT PSPICE Model -- Typical Values
Saturation Current = 3 e-17 A
Forward current gain = 100
Reverse current gain = 0.5
Forward Early voltage = 75 V
Base resistance = 250
Collector Resistance = 50
Emitter Resistance = 1
Forward transit time = 0.15 ns
Reverse transit time = 15 ns
Minority Carrier Transport in Base
Region

With a narrow base region, minority carrier density decreases linearly

across the base, and the Saturation Current (NPN) is:
where
N
AB
= the doping concentration in the base
n
i
2
= the intrinsic carrier concentration (10
10
/cm
3
)
n
bo
= n
i
2
/ N
AB
D
n
= the diffusivity = (kT/q)
n

Saturation current for the PNP transistor is:

Due to the higher mobility () of electrons compared to holes, the npn

transistor conducts higher current than the pnp for equivalent doping
and applied voltages.
B
W
AB
N
i
n
n
qAD
B
W
bo
n
n
qAD
S
I
2

B
W
DB
N
i
n
p
qAD
B
W
bo
p
p
qAD
S
I
2

Diffusion Capacitance
For v
BE
and hence i
C
to change, charge stored in the base region must
also change.

Diffusion capacitance in parallel with the forward-biased base-emitter

diode produces a good model for the change in charge with v
BE
.

Since transport current normally represents collector current in the

forward-active region,
F
T
V
T
I
T
V
BE
v
B
W
bo
qAn
T
V
po Q
BE
dv
dQ
D
C

,
_

exp
2
1
int
F
T
V
C
I
D
C
Early Effect and Early Voltage

As reverse-bias across the collector-base junction increases, the width of

the collector-base depletion layer increases and the effective width of base
decreases. This is called base-width modulation.

In a practical BJT, the output characteristics have a positive slope in the

forward-active region, so that collector current is not independent of v
CE
.
Early effect: When the output characteristics are extrapolated back to
where the i
C
curves intersect at common point, v
CE
= -V
A
(Early voltage),
which lies between 15 V and 150 V.

Simplified F.A.R. equations, which include the Early effect, are:

i
C
I
S
exp
v
BE
V
T




_
,









1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1+
v
CE
V
A






1
]
1
1
1
1

F
I
B
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
A
V
CE
v
FO F
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

T
V
BE
v
FO
S
I
B
i exp

BJT Current Mirror

The collector terminal of a BJT in the

forward-active region mimics the
behavior of a current source.
Output current is independent of V
CC
as
long as V
CC
0.8 V. This puts the BJT
in the forward-active region, since V
BC

- 0.1 V.
Q
1
and Q
2
are assumed to be a matched
pair with identical I
S,

FO,
and V
A,
.
1 1 1 B
I
B
I
C
I
R
BE
V
BB
V
REF
I + +

BJT Current Mirror (continued)

With an infinite
FO
and V
A
(ideal device), the mirror ratio is unity. Finite
current gain and Early voltage introduce a mismatch between the output
and reference currents of the mirror.
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

T
V
BE
V
FO
S
I
A
V
CE
V
T
V
BE
V
S
I
REF
I exp 2
1
1 exp

FO A
V
BE
V
A
V
CE
V
REF
I
A
V
CE
V
T
V
BE
V
S
I
C
I

2
1
2
1
2
1 exp
2
+ +
+
+

,
_

1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

MR
I
O
I
REF

1+
V
CE2
V
A
1+
V
BE
V
A
+
2

FO
i s the "Mirror Ra tio".
BJT Current Mirror: Example

Problem: Find output current for given current mirror

Given data:
FO
= 75, V
A
= 50 V
Assumptions: Forward-active operation region, V
BE
= 0.7 V

Analysis:
VBE =
6.7333e-01
IC2 =
5.3317e-04
IC21 =
5.3317e-04
BJT Current Mirror: Altering the Mirror Ratio
The Mirror Ratio of a BJT current mirror can be changed by simply
changing the relative sizes of the emitters in the transistors. For the
ideal case, the Mirror Ratio is determined only by the ratio of the
two emitter areas.
A
E
A
SO
I
S
I
where I
SO
is the saturation current of a BJT
with one unit of emitter area: A
E
=1(A). The
actual dimensions of A are technology-
dependent.
FO A
V
BE
V
A
V
CE
V
REF
I n
O
I

2
1
2
1
.
+ +
+

1
2
E
A
E
A
n
BJT Current Mirror: Output Resistance

A current source using BJTs doesnt have an output current that is

completely independent of the terminal voltage across it, due to the
finite value of Early voltage. The current source seems to have a
resistive component in series with it.
R
o
is defined as the small signal output resistance of the current
mirror.

R
o

i
o
v
o
Qpt







_
,





1

I
C2
V
A
+V
CE






1
]
1
1
1
1
1

V
A
I
O

i
O
i
C2
I
REF
1+
V
CE2
+v
ce2
V
A
1+
V
BE
V
A
+
2

FO
I
REF
1+
V
CE
+v
o
V
A
1+
V
BE
V
A
+
2

FO