Julius Caesar

PERSONAITIES IN THEIR TIMES

Historical Context

Geography, topography and resources of Rome and provincesprehistoric Rome began as a small group of
settlements on the River Tiber, 27km from the sea, on the plains of Latium in central Italy. Rome outstripped other towns in Latium in wealth and power, gradually taking over the entire peninsula, and later the countries around the Mediterranean Sea.

Advantages:

Rome settled on both banks of the Tiber River, which lies in the centre of the Italian peninsula. This centrality gave them advantages in trading and military strategy. Easy access to the sea was available. Geographically well placed for aggressive, defensive and commercial role in Italy.

Geography, topography and resources of Rome and provinces

Disadvantages:

Too far from sea to be a great commercial port. No natural resources. Harsh climate, including flooding, pestilence and fever. Huge dependence on grain imports as the population grew. Supply of grain from Sicily, Sardinia and Africa made it expensive and unreliable.

Geography, topography and resources of Rome and provinces

Resources

Romans were almost all vegetarian, most likely due to short supply of meat. Water supply was free and local water carried by underground pipes or aqueducts from Sabine Hills. State gave free handouts of grain to the poor (the corn dole) and the cost of this grew enormously as the population increased. It had been an astute government / political policy to keep the population well fed and therefore in favour. When supply or cost was ever in doubt, plebs would protest, often violently, to gain back their advantages.

Geography, topography and resources of Rome and provinces

There was a vast trade all over the empire, which exchanged metals, amber, building stone, wine, olive oil, fish, ceramics, and domestic and exotic animals. Farming was one of the most important industries. Gracchi regulated supply, transport and finances of the grain supply. Pompey did similarly with the Lex Gabinia. From 58BC to 46BC, corn was free to citizens. Cost was enormous but was seen as a necessary political move. In 47BC, when Caesar became dictator, over twothirds of the population were receiving free grain. Caesar reduced the number to 150,000 names. He was the only person ever to get the amount of dependents on grain this low.

Overview of Roman political and social structures

By the time of Caesars birth, the republican institution was under increasing pressure.

The consuls:

Two chief magistrates were the consuls, who served for one year and possessed judicial, legislative and executive powers. Both had equal power, and had the power to veto each others decisions. Also subject to veto from the tribunes. Held the power of imperium supreme military authority.

Overview of Roman political and social structures

Praetor:

Presidents of civil and criminal courts. Eight elected annually. Could govern provinces and command an army after time as praetor ended.

Aedile:

Held public games and entertainment Four elected annually.

Overview of Roman political and social structures

The Cursus Honorum

Villian Law 180BC stated the sequence of public offices that could be held and the age a person had to be to hold them. [Quaestor Aedile Praetor Consul] Sullan Constitution implemented further restrictions to ambitious young generals by increasing the age requirements, however he himself broke with this when he allowed Pompey to gain senatorial positions ahead of his time. By Ciceronian age, the use of force was becoming the more popular method for a successful general to gain status.

Overview of Roman political and social structures

The Senate

Consisted of 600 men, although the numbers increased over time to accommodate new wealthy families (novus homo). Composed of the heads of Romes leading families, and membership was for life. Most influential governing body in Rome. Sessions were held in the curia at the Forum.

Overview of Roman political and social structures

The Peoples Assembly

The assembly of the plebeians concilium plebis. Allowed them to have a voice in the republican system, and gave plebeians the opportunity of a political career. Their representatives, the tribunes, had the power of veto over the senate, including the consuls. The office of tribune was a significant step for a plebeian, offering them prestige and wealth, which often made them easy to persuade and manipulate to stay on side with the senate.

Overview of Roman political and social structures

The classes

Population of Rome in 50BC is approximately one million. Society divided by birth and wealth:

Rich and poor Patrician and Plebeian Citizen and non-citizen

Overview of Roman political and social structures

Social classes consisted of:

Patricians Equites Poor citizens Free people without citizenship Women Freed slaves Slaves (consisted of one-third of the population)

Overview of significant political and military developments

Political:

The first century BC was a turbulent period of foreign wars, internal strife, escalating violence and political upheaval. The democratic constitution is said to have failed working since the Punic Wars (the last ended in 146BC). The Senate proved incapable of change, largely because the senators were constantly only looking after their own needs, and was in desperate need of reform by 133BC. There was stubborn resistance by the Senate when proposals were put forward for more just and equitable social reform, such as the distribution of public land to the poor, or citizenship for Italian allies. The Social War in 91BC was a revolt by Romes allies in Italy for voting rights, which they were granted.

Overview of significant political and military developments

This was followed by Civil War between Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Victory in this war by Sulla led to the proscriptions a list of people to be put to death for giving support to Marius. The senate kept a precarious hold on government by playing off ambitious generals against each other. Power of the equites was beginning to grow as a result of the increasing empire, developing an increasing reliance on trade. Gnaeus Pompeius successful general of the time who had an early rise to prominence, against the mandate of the constitution. Although popular, he lacked definite policy. Cicero and Crassus were both ambitious men, but lacked overall calibre to fully impose their will. Julius Caesar began making waves around 78BC (he returns to Rome after Sullas death).

Overview of significant political and military developments

Military:

The Roman army was originally not professional but recruited annually. Every male citizen had a duty to serve for 16 years in the infantry or 10 years in the cavalry. Soldiers received subsistence pay, dependent on the booty they recovered (spoils of war) and were usually granted land (land grants) by their commander at the end of their service, which guaranteed loyalty. During wars, armies were self sufficient. The emergence of professional client armies was a major factor to the instability of Rome in the last century BC.

Overview of significant political and military developments

Rome depended on its armies for expansion, security and protection of the empire. Internally, the army was the only law enforcer. The state could only survive so long as the army supported it, which meant generals staying loyal. Relationship between the state and its generals became increasingly complex and difficult two civil wars were started by generals who had grievances with the state. It was equally important for generals to maintain the loyalty of their army. Soldiers in the army were professional and loyal, but they were equally concerned with wealth.

Overview of significant political and military developments

After 89BC there existed only one Roman army of citizens. When Julius Caesar took the step of doubling the pay of his legionnaires, he inadvertently created his own personal army (client army). These were not new they had existed before. The army was an instrument of terror and control which a general could exploit. The generals, with the army behind them, could make demands, threaten the state, and defy the constitution. Such defiance resulted in the weakening of the fabric of lawful society. The clash of the civil and military authorities in Rome in this time was a feature of the late Republic.