K K TWT M Communication 2

Heng Chan; Mohawk College 1
Communications 2
EE555
Course Content
pIntroduction & Review
pTransmission Line Characteristics
pWaveguides & Microwave Devices
pRadiowave Propagation
pAntennas
pMicrowave Radio & Radar Systems
pFibre Optic Communications
Introduction & Review
pMicrowaves are defined as radio waves in
the frequency range > 1 GHz.
pHowever, waves > 20 GHz are commonly
known as millimeter waves
pDistributed, rather than lumped, circuit
elements must be used at microwave
frequencies because of a phenomenon
called skin effect.

Skin Effect
pAt microwave frequencies current travels on
the outer surface, or skin, of the conductor
because of the increased inductance created.
pThe skin depth , o (in m), for a conductor
with permeability, (in H/m), conductivity,
o (in S/m), and at a frequency, f (in Hz), is
given by:
o t
o
f
1
=
Skin Effect (contd)
p The current density, J,
decreases with the
distance beneath the
surface exponentially.
p At a depth o, the
current density
decreases to J
o
/e.
p As f increases, o + and
resistance |.
J
J
o

z
J = J
o
e
-z/o

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

direction
of current
Transverse Electromagnetic Waves
x
y
z
Electric Field
Magnetic Field
In free space:
Notes on TEM Waves
pThe E- and H-fields and the direction of
motion of TEM waves are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
pVelocity of radio waves in free space is c =
3x10
8
m/s, but in a medium with dielectric
constant c
r
:
f
v c
v
r
= =
c
;
Microwave Materials
pGlass epoxy printed circuit boards are
unsuitable for microwave use because of
high dissipation factor and wide tolerance in
thickness and dielectric constant.
pInstead, materials such as Teflon fiberglass
laminates, alumina substrates, sapphire and
quartz substrates must be used (refer to text
for details).
Types of Transmission Lines
pDifferential or balanced lines (where neither
conductor is grounded): e.g. twin lead,
twisted-cable pair, and shielded-cable pair.
pSingle-ended or unbalanced lines (where
one conductor is grounded): e.g. concentric
or coaxial cable.
pTransmission lines for microwave use: e.g.
striplines, microstrips, and waveguides.
Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit
R
L
R
L
C
G
C
G
L
L
C
C
Lossy Line
Lossless Line
C j G
L j R
Z
o
e
e
+
+
=
C
L
Z
o
=
Z
o

Z
o

Notes on Transmission Line
pCharacteristics of a line is determined by its
primary electrical constants or distributed
parameters: R (O/m), L (H/m), C (F/m), and
G (S/m).
pCharacteristic impedance, Z
o
, is defined as
the input impedance of an infinite line or
that of a finite line terminated with a load
impedance, Z
L
= Z
o
.
Formulas for Some Lines
D
d
D
d
d
D
Z
d
D
C
d
D
L
r
o
2
ln
120
;
2
ln
;
2
ln
c
tc
t
= = =
For parallel two-wire line:
For co-axial cable:
d
D
Z
d
D
C
d
D
L
r
o
ln
60
;
ln
2
; ln
2
c
tc
t
= = =
=
o
r
; c = c
o
c
r
;
o
= 4tx10
-7
H/m; c
o
= 8.854

pF/m
Transmission-Line Wave Propagation
Electromagnetic waves travel at < c in a transmission
line because of the dielectric separating the conductors.
The velocity of propagation is given by:
r
c
LC
v
c c
= = =
1 1
m/s
Velocity factor, VF, is defined as:
r
c
v
VF
c
1
= =
Propagation Constant
pPropagation constant, , determines the
variation of V or I with distance along the
line: V = V
s
e
-x
; I = I
s
e
-x
, where V
S
, and I
S

are the voltage and current at the source
end, and x = distance from source.
p = o + j|, where o = attenuation
coefficient (= 0 for lossless line), and | =
phase shift coefficient = 2t/ (rad./m)
Incident & Reflected Waves
pFor an infinitely long line or a line
terminated with a matched load, no incident
power is reflected. The line is called a flat
or nonresonant line.
pFor a finite line with no matching
termination, part or all of the incident
voltage and current will be reflected.
Reflection Coefficient
The reflection coefficient is defined as:
i
r
i
r
I
I
or
E
E
= I
It can also be shown that:
| Z I =
+
= I
o L
o L
Z Z
Z Z
Note that when Z
L
= Z
o
, I = 0; when Z
L
= 0, I = -1;
and when Z
L
= open circuit, I = 1.
Standing Waves
V
min
= E
i
- E
r

With a mismatched line, the incident and reflected
waves set up an interference pattern on the line
known as a standing wave.
The standing wave ratio is :
I
I +
= =
1
1
min
max
V
V
SWR
V
max
= E
i
+ E
r

2
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

Other Formulas
When the load is purely resistive:
(whichever gives an SWR > 1) L
o
o
L
Z
Z
or
Z
Z
SWR =
Return Loss, RL = Fraction of power reflected
= |I|
2
, or -20 log |I| dB
So, P
r
= |I|
2
P
i

Mismatched Loss, ML = Fraction of power
transmitted/absorbed = 1 - |I|
2
or -10 log(1-|I|
2
) dB
So, P
t
= P
i
(1 - |I|
2
) = P
i
- P
r

Time-Domain Reflectometry
Z
L

Pulse or Step
Generator
Oscilloscope
Transmission Line
TDR is a practical technique for determining the
length of the line, the way it is terminated, and the
type and location of any impedance discontinuities.
The distance to the discontinuity is: d = vt/2, where
t = elapsed time of returned reflection.
d
Typical TDR Waveform Displays
t
R
L
> Z
o
R
L
< Z
o

Z
L
inductive
Z
L
capacitive
V
i

V
r

V
r

V
i

Transmission-Line Input Impedance
The input impedance at a distance l from the load is:
) tan(
) tan(
l jZ Z
l jZ Z
Z Z
L o
o L
o i
|
|
+
+
=
When the load is a short circuit, Z
i
= jZ
o
tan (|l).
For 0 - l < /4, shorted line is inductive.
For l = /4, shorted line = a parallel resonant circuit.
For /4 < l - /2, shorted line is capacitive.
T-L Input Impedance (contd)
When the load is an open circuit, Z
i
= -jZ
o
cot (|l)
For 0 < l < /4, open circuited line is capacitive.
For l = /4, open-line = series resonant circuit.
For /4 < l < /2, open-line is inductive.
p A /4 line with characteristic impedance, Z
o
, can
be used as a matching transformer between a
resistive load, Z
L
, and a line with characteristic
impedance, Z
o
, by choosing:

L o o
Z Z Z =
'
Transmission Line Summary
or
l < /4
l > /4
is equivalent to:
l > /4
or
l < /4
is equivalent to:
=
=
/4
Z
o

Z
o

Z
L

/4-section Matching
Transformer
l = /4
The Smith Chart
pThe Smith chart is a graphical aid to solving
transmission-line impedance problems.
pThe coordinates on the chart are based on
the intersection of two sets of orthogonal
circles.
p One set represents the normalized resistive
component, r (= R/Z
o
), and the other the
normalized reactive component, jx (= jX/Z
o
).
Smith Chart Basics
r = 0
r = 1
r = 2
+j0.7
-j1.4
j0
z
1

z
2

z
1
= 1+j0.7
z
2
= 2-j1.4
_
Applications of The Smith Chart
pApplications to be discussed in this course:
Find SWR, |I|Z|, RL
Find Y
L

Find Z
i
of a shorted or open line of length l
Find Z
i
of a line terminated with Z
L
Find distance to V
max
and V
min
from Z
L

Solution for quarter-wave transformer matching
Solution for parallel single-stub matching
Substrate Lines
pMiniaturized microwave circuits use
striplines and microstrips rather than coaxial
cables as transmission lines for greater
flexibility and compactness in design.
pThe basic stripline structure consists of a
flat conductor embedded in a dielectric
material and sandwiched between two
ground planes.
Basic Stripline Structure
Ground Planes
Centre Conductor
Solid Dielectric
b
W
t
c
r

Notes On Striplines
p When properly designed, the E and H fields of the
signal are completely confined within the
dielectric material between the two ground planes.
p The characteristic impedance of the stripline is a
function of its line geometry, specifically, the t/b
and w/b ratios, and the dielectric constant, c
r
.
p Graphs, design formulas, or computer programs
are available to determine w for a desired Z
o
, t,
and b.

Microstrip
w
t
b
Ground Plane
c
r
(dielectric)
Circuit Line
Microstrip line employs a single ground plane, the
conductor pattern on the top surface being open.
Graphs, formulas or computer programs would be used to
design the conductor line width. However, since the
electromagnetic field is partly in the solid dielectric, and
partly in the air space, the effective relative permittivity, c
eff
,
has to be used in the design instead of c
r
.
Stripline vs Microstrip
pAdvantages of stripline:
signal is shielded from external interference
shielding prevents radiation loss
c
r
and mode of propagation are more
predictable for design
pAdvantages of microstrip:
easier to fabricate, therefore less costly
easier to lay, repair/replace components
Microstrip Directional Coupler
/4
Top View
Cross-sectional
View
Conductor Lines
Dielectric
Ground Plane
1
2
3
4
Most of the power into port #1 will flow to port #3.
Some of the power will be coupled to port #2 but
only a minute amount will go to port #4.
Formulas For Directional Coupler
The operation of the coupler gives rise to an even
mode characteristic impedance, Z
oe
, and an odd mode
characteristic impedance, Z
oo
, where:
oo oe o
Z Z Z =
For a given coupling factor, C (which is V
2
/V
1
):
C
C
Z Z
C
C
Z Z
o oo o oe
+
+
=
1
1
;
1
1
Coupler Applications
pSome common applications for couplers:
monitoring/measuring the power or frequency
at a point in the circuit
sampling the microwave energy for used in
automatic leveling circuits (ALC)
reflection measurements which indirectly yield
information on VSWR, Z
L
, return loss, etc.
Branch Coupler
1
2
3
4
/4
/4
Z
1
= 0.707 Z
o

Input power at port #1 will
divide equally between
Ports 2 and 3 and none to
port 4.
Can provide tighter coupling and can handle
higher power than directional coupler.
Branches may consist of chokes, filters, or
matched load for more design flexibility.
Z
o
Z
o

Z
1

Z
1

Hybrid Ring Coupler
Input power at port
#1 divides evenly
between ports 2 & 4
and none for port 3.
Similarly, input at
port #2 will divide
evenly between ports
1 and 3 and none for port 4.
One application: circulator.
1
2
3
4
/4
/4
/4
3/4
Microstrip & Stripline Filters
/4 IN
OUT
Side-coupled half-wave resonator band-pass filter
IN
OUT
L
C C C
L
L
Conventional low-pass filter
L
Scattering Parameters
p Microwave devices are often characterized by
their S-parameters because:
measurement of V and I may be difficult at
microwave frequencies.
Active devices frequently become unstable
when open or short-circuit type measurements
are made for h, Y or Z parameters.
p An [S] matrix is used to contain all the S-
parameters.
S-Variables & S-Parameters
a
1

b
1
b
2

a
2

V
1
V
2

For port x:
V
x
= V
ix
+ V
rx
;
S-variables:
o
rx
x
o
ix
x
Z
V
b
Z
V
a = = ;
P
x
= P
ix
- P
rx
= |a
x
|
2
-|b
x
|
2

(
=
(
2
1
22
12
21
11
2
1
a
a
S
S
S
S
b
b
b
1
= S
11
a
1
+ S
12
a
2

b
2
= S
21
a
1
+ S
22
a
2

or
2-Port
Network
S-Parameters of 2-Port Network
0
2
2
22 0
2
1
12
0
1
2
21 0
1
1
11
1 1
2 2
;
;
= =
= =
= =
= =
a a
a a
a
b
S
a
b
S
a
b
S
a
b
S
Note: when port 2 is
terminated with a
matched load, a
2
= 0.
Similarly, a
1
= 0 when
port 1 is matched.
S
11
, and S
22
are reflection coefficients, i.e., I
11
, & I
22
.
S
21
represents the forward transmission coefficient.
Thus, Insertion Loss/attenuation = -10 log (P
o2
/P
i1
)
= -20 log |S
21
| dB
S
12
is the reversed transmission coefficient.
Properties of S-Parameters
pIn general, S-parameters have both
magnitude and angle.
pFor matched 2-port reflectionless networks,
S
11
= S
22
= 0
pFor a reciprocal 2-port network, S
12
= S
21
.
pFor a lossless 2-port network, S
12
= S
21
= 1.
pFor n-port, [b] = [S] [a]. The n x n [S]
matrix characterizes the network.
Microwave Radiation Hazards
p The fact that microwaves can be used for cooking
purposes and in heating applications suggests that
they have the potential for causing biological
damage.
p Health & Welfare, Canada specifies no limit
exposure duration for radiation level of 1 mW/cm
2

or less for frequencies from 10 MHz to 300 GHz.
p Avoid being in the direct path of a microwave
beam coming out of an antenna or waveguide.
Waveguides
pReasons for using waveguide rather than
coaxial cable at microwave frequency:
easier to fabricate
no solid dielectric and I
2
R losses
pWaveguides do not support TEM waves
inside because of boundary conditions.
pWaves travel zig-zag down the waveguide
by bouncing from one side wall to the other.
E-Field Pattern of TE
1 0
Mode
a
b
g
/2
End View Side View
TE
mn
means there are m number of half-wave variations
of the transverse E-field along the a side and n number
of half-wave variations along the b side.
The magnetic field (not shown) forms closed loops
horizontally around the E-field
TE and TM Modes
p TE
mn
mode has the E-field entirely transverse, i.e.
perpendicular, to the direction of propagation.
p TM
mn
mode has the H-field entirely transverse to
the direction of propagation.
p All TE
mn
and TM
mn
modes are theoretically
permissible except, in a rectangular waveguide,
TM
mo
or TM
on
modes are not possible since the
magnetic field must form a closed loop.
p In practice, only the dominant mode, TE
10
is used.
Wavelength for TE & TM Modes
+ Any signal with
c
will not propagate down
the waveguide.
+ For air-filled waveguide, cutoff freq., f
c
= c/
c
Guide wavelength:
( ) ( )
2 2
/ 1 / 1 f f
or
c c
g

=

+ TE
10
is called the dominant mode since
c
= 2a
is the longest wavelength of any mode.
( ) ( )
2 2
/ /
2
b n a m
c
+
=
Cutoff wavelength:
Other Formulas for TE & TM Modes
Group velocity: ( )
2
/ 1
c
g
g
c or c v
=
Phase velocity:
( )
2
/ 1
c
g
p
c
or c v

=
Wave impedance:
( )
( )
2
2
/ 1
/ 1
c o TM
c
o
TE
Z Z
Z
Z

=
=
Z
o
= 377 O for air-filled
waveguide
Circular/Cylindrical Waveguides
p Differences versus rectangular waveguides :
-
c
= 2tr/B
mn
where r = waveguide radius, and
B
mn
is obtained from table of Bessel functions.
All TE
mn
and TM
mn
modes are supported since
m and n subscripts are defined differently.
Dominant mode is TE
11
.
p Advantages: higher power-handling capacity,
lower attenuation for a given cutoff wavelength.
p Disadvantages: larger and heavier.
Waveguide Terminations
Dissipative Vane
Side View End View
Short-circuit
Sliding Short-Circuit
g
/2
Dissipative vane is coated with a thin film of metal
which in turn has a thin dielectric coating for
protection. Its impedance is made equal to the
wave impedance. The taper minimizes reflection.
Sliding short-circuit functions like a shorted stub
for impedance matching purpose.
Attenuators
Resistive Flap
Sliding-vane Type
Rotary-vane Type
Max. attenuation when flap
is fully inside. Slot for flap
is chosen to be at a non-
radiating position.
Max. attenuation when vane
is at centre of guide and min.
at the side-wall.
Atten.(dB) = 10 log (P
i
/P
o
)
= -20 log |S
21
|
P
i
P
o

P
i
P
o

Iris Reactors
=
=
=
Inductive iris; vanes are vertical
Capacitive iris; vanes are
horizontal
Irises can be used as reactance
elements, filters or impedance
matching devices.
Tuning Screw s
A post or screw can also serve as a reactive element.
When the screw is advanced partway into the wave-
guide, it acts capacitive. When the screw is advanced
all the way into the waveguide, it acts inductive. In
between the two positions, one can get a resonant LC
circuit.
Post
Tuning Screws
Waveguide T-Junctions
1
2
3
1
2
3
E-Plane Junction H-Plane Junction
Input power at port 2 will split equally between ports 1 and
3 but the outputs will be antiphase for E-plane T and inphase
for H-plane T. Input power at ports 1 & 3 will combine and
exit from port 1 provided the correct phasing is used.
S-Matrix for T-Junctions
For ideal T-junction:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
] [S
Note: + sign is used for
H-plane T, and (-) sign
for E-plane T.
Also note that even
though S
22
= 0 (i.e. lossless), S
11
and S
33
are
each equal to 1/2, i.e., input power applied to ports
1 and 3 will always suffer from reflection.
Hybrid-T Junction
1
2
3
4
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
2
1
] [S
It combines E-plane and H-plane junctions.
Note : S
11
, S
22
, S
33
, and S
44
are zero.
P
in
at port 1 or 2 will divide between ports 3 and 4.
P
in
at port 3 or 4 will divide between ports 1 and 2.
Under matched & ideal conditions:
Hybrid-T Junction (contd)
pIf input power of the same phase is applied
simultaneously at ports 1 and 2, the
combined power exits from port 4. If the
input is out-of-phase, the output is at port 3.
pApplications:
Combining power from two transmitters.
TX and a RX sharing a common antenna.
Low noise mixer circuit.
Directional Coupler
P
1

P
2

P
4

Termination
g
/4
P
3

2-hole Coupler
Holes spaced
g
/4 allow waves travelling toward
port 4 to combine. Waves travelling toward port 3,
however, will cancel. Therefore, ideally P
3
= 0.
To broaden frequency response bandwidth, practical
couplers would usually have multi holes.
P
1

P
2

Directional Coupler (contd)
For ideal directional coupler:
(
(
(
(
=
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
] [
o |
o |
| o
| o
S
where o
2
+ |
2
= 1
Definitions:
Coupling Factor, | | log 20 log 10 ) (
14
4
1
S
P
P
dB C = =
Directivity,
31
41
31
41
log 20 log 10 ) (
S
S
P
P
dB D = =
Insertion Loss (dB) = 10 log (P
1
/P
2
) = -20 log |S
12
|
Cavity Resonators
a
b
L
Resonant wavelength for a
rectangular cavity:
2 2 2
) / ( ) / ( ) / (
2
L p b n a m
r
+ +
=
L
r
For a cylindrical resonator:
2 2
2
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
p
r
B
mn
r
t
t

Cavity Resonators (contd)
pEnergy is coupled into the cavity either
through a small opening, by a coupling loop
or a coupling probe. These methods of
coupling also apply for waveguides
pApplications of resonators:
filters
absorption wavemeters
microwave tubes

Ferrite Components
p Ferrites are compounds of metallic oxides such as
those of Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg, Co, Al, and Ni.
p They have magnetic properties similar to
ferromagnetic metals and at the same time have
high resistivity associated with dielectrics.
p Their magnetic properties can be controlled by
means of an external magnetic field.
p They can be transparent, reflective, absorptive, or
cause wave rotation depending on the H-field..
Examples of Ferrite Devices
Attenuator
Isolator
u
Differential
Phase Shifter
1
2
3
4
4-port
Circulator
Notes On Ferrite Devices
p Differential phase shifter - u is the phase shift
between the two directions of propagation.
p Isolator - permits power flow in one direction
only.
p Circulator - power entering port 1 will go to port 2
only; power entering port 2 will go to port 3 only;
etc.
p Most of the above are based on Faraday rotation.
p Other usage: filters, resonators, and substrates.
Schottky Barrier Diode
Semi-
conductor
Layer
Substrate
Contact
SiO
2

Dielectric
Metal
Electrode
Metal
Electrode
Its based on a simple metal-
semiconductor interface.
There is no p-n junction but
a depletion region exists.
Current is by majority
carriers; therefore, very low
in capacitance.
Applications: detectors, mixers, and switches.
Varactor Diode
Circuit Symbol
V
C
j

C
o

Junction Capacitance Characteristic
Varactors operate under reverse-bias conditions.
The junction capacitance is:
m
b
o
j
V V
K C
C
) (
=
where V
b
= barrier potential
(0.55 to 0.7 for silicon)
and K = constant (often = 1)
Equivalent Circuit for Varactor
C
j

R
j

R
s

The series resistance, R
s
, and diode
capacitance, C
j
, determine the
cutoff frequency:
j s
c
C R
f
t 2
1
=
The diode quality factor for a given
frequency, f, is:
f
f
Q
c
=
Varactor Applications
pVoltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) in AFC
and PLL circuits
pVariable phase shifter
pHarmonic generator in frequency multiplier
circuits
pUp or down converter circuits
pParametric amplifier circuits - low noise
Parametric Amplifier Circuit
Pump signal (f
p
)
Input
signal
(f
s
)
L1
C1
C2
L2
D1
L3
C3
Signal
tank (f
s
)
Idler
tank (f
i
)
Nondegenerative mode:
Upconversion - f
i
= f
s
+ f
p

Downconversion - f
i
= f
s
- f
p

Power gain, G = f
i
/f
s

Regenerative mode:
4 negative resistance
4 very low noise
4 very high gain
f
p
= f
s
+ f
i

Degenerative Mode: f
p
= 2f
s

PIN Diode
P
+

I
N
+

+V
R
RFC
C1
C2
S1
D1
In
Out
PIN as shunt switch
PIN diode has an intrinsic region between the P
+

and N
+
materials. It has a very high resistance in
the OFF mode and a very low resistance when
forward biased.
PIN Diode Applications
pTo switch devices such as attenuators,
filters, and amplifiers in and out of the
circuit.
pVoltage-variable attenuator
pAmplitude modulator
pTransmit-receive (TR) switch
pPhase shifter (with section of transmission
line)
Tunnel Diode
Symbol
L
s

C
j

R
s

-R
Equivalent
Circuit
i
V
V
v

I
p

V
p

Characteristic Curve
Heavy doping of the semiconductor material creates
a very thin potential barrier in the depletion zone
which leads to electron tunneling through the barrier.
Note the negative resistance zone between V
p
and V
v
.
B
C
A
More Notes On Tunnel Diode
The resistive, and self-resonant frequencies are:
2
) (
1 1
2
1
; 1
2
1
j j s
s
s j
r
RC C L
f
R
R
C R
f = =
t t
Tunnel diodes can be used in monostable (A or C),
bistable (between A and C), or astable (B) modes.
These modes lead to switching, oscillation, and
amplification applications. However, the power
output levels of the tunnel diode are restricted to a
few mW only.
Transferred Electron Devices
p TEDs are made of compound semiconductors such
as GaAs.
p They exhibit periodic fluctuations of current due
to negative resistance effects when a threshold
voltage (about 3.4 V) is exceeded.
p The negative resistance effect is due to electrons
being swept from a lower valley (more mobile)
region to an upper valley (less mobile) region in
the conduction band.
Gunn Diode
The Gunn diode is a transferred electron device that
can be used in microwave oscillators or one-port
reflection amplifiers. Its basic structure is shown
below. N
-
, the active region, is sandwiched between
two heavily doped N
+
regions. Electrons from the
N
-

Metallic
Electrode
N
+

Metallic
Electrode
cathode (K) drifts to
the anode (A) in bunched
formation called domains.
Note that there is no p-n
junction.
A K
l
Gunn Operating Modes
p Stable Amplification (SA) Mode: diode behaves
as an amplifier due to negative resistance effect.
p Transit Time (TT) Mode: operating frequency, f
o

= v
d
/ l where v
d
is the domain velocity, and l is
the effective length. Output power < 2 W, and
frequency is between 1 GHz to 18 GHz.
p Limited Space-Charge (LSA) Mode: requires a
high-Q resonant cavity; operating frequency up to
100 GHz and pulsed output power > 100 W.
Gunn Diode Circuit and Applications
Tuning
Screw
Diode
Resonant
Cavity
Iris
V
Gunn diode applications: microwave source for
receiver local oscillator, police radars, and
microwave communication links.

The resonant cavity
is shocked excited by
current pulses from
the Gunn diode and
the RF energy is
coupled via the iris
to the waveguide.
Avalanche Transit-Time Devices
p If the reverse-bias potential exceeds a certain
threshold, the diode breaks down.
p Energetic carriers collide with bound electrons to
create more hole-electron pairs.
p This multiplies to cause a rapid increase in reverse
current.
p The onset of avalanche current and its drift across
the diode is out of phase with the applied voltage
thus producing a negative resistance phenomenon.
IMPATT Diode
A single-drift structure of an IMPATT (impact
avalanche transit time) diode is shown below:
P
+
N N
+

-
+
l
Drift Region
Avalanche
Region
Operating frequency:
l
v
f
d
2
=
where v
d
= drift
velocity
Notes On IMPATT Diode
p The current build-up and the transit time for the
current pulse to cross the drift region cause a 180
o

phase delay between V and I; thus, negative R.
p IMPATT diodes typically operate in the 3 to 6
GHz region but higher frequencies are possible.
p They must operate in conjunction with an external
high-Q resonant circuit.
p They have relatively high output power (>100 W
pulsed) but are very noisy and not very efficient.

Microwave Transistors
p Silicon BJTs and GaAsFETs are most widely
used.
p BJT useful for amplification up to about 6 MHz.
p MesFET (metal semiconductor FET) and HEMT
(high electron mobility transistor) are operable
beyond 60 GHz.
p FETs have higher input impedance, better
efficiency and more frequency stable than BJTs.
Microwave Transistor Power Gain
Max. power gain of a unilateral transistor amplifier
with conjugate matched input and output:
Transistor
G
o

Matching
Network
G
s

Matching
Network
G
L

Z
L

Z
s

V
s

2
22
2
21
2
11
max
| | 1
1
| |
| | 1
1
S
S
S
G G G G
L o s

= =
Note that G
o
= |S
21
|
2
is the gain of the transistor. For
unconditional stability, |S
11
| < 1 and |S
22
| < 1.
Noise Factor & Noise Figure
Noise Factor, F
n
= SNR
in
/SNR
out

Noise Figure, NF (dB) = 10 log F
n

= SNR
in
(dB) - SNR
out
(dB)
Equivalent noise temperature, T
e
= (F
n
-1) T
o

where T
o
= 290
o
K
For amplifiers in cascade, the overall noise factor:
1 2 1 2 1
3
1
2
1
...
1
. . .
1 1
+ +
+ =
n
n
T
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F
where G
n
= amplifier gain of the nth stage.
Microwave Tubes
pClassical vacuum tubes have several factors
which limit their upper operating frequency:
interelectrode capacitance & lead inductance
dielectric losses & skin effect
transit time
pMicrowave tubes utilize resonant cavities
and the interaction between the electric
field, magnetic field and the electrons.
Heng Chan ; Mohawk College 84
Magnetrons
It consists of a cylindrical cathode surrounded by the
anode with a number of resonant cavities.
Waveguide
Output
Coupling
Window
Cathode
Anode
Interaction
Space
Cavity
Its a crossed-field
device since the E-field
is perpendicular to the
dc magnetic field.
At a critical voltage
the electrons from the
cathode will just graze
the anode.
Magnetron Operation
p When an electron cloud sweeps past a cavity, it
excites the latter to self oscillation which in turn
causes the electrons to bunch up into a spoked
wheel formation in the interaction space.
p The continuous exchange of energy between the
electrons and the cavities sustains oscillations at
microwave frequency.
p Electrons will eventually lose their energy and fall
back into the cathode while new ones are emitted.
More Notes On Magnetrons
p Alternate cavities are strapped (i.e., shorted) so
that adjacent resonators are 180
o
out of phase.
This enables only the dominant t-mode to operate.
p Frequency tuning is possible either mechanically
(screw tuner) or electrically with voltage.
p Magnetrons are used as oscillators for radars,
beacons, microwave ovens, etc.
p Peak output power is from a few MW at UHF and
X-band to 10 kW at 100 GHz.
Klystrons
pKlystrons are linear-beam devices since the
E-field is parallel to the static magnetic
field.
pTheir operation is based on velocity and
density modulation with resonating cavities
to create the bunching effect.
pThey can be employed as oscillators or
power amplifiers.
Two-Cavity Klystron
Filament
RF In RF Out
Control
Grid
Cathode
Anode
Buncher
Cavity
Catcher
Cavity
Collector
Gap
Drift
Region
Effect of velocity modulation
v
Electron
Beam
Klystron Operation
p RF signal applied to the buncher cavity sets up an
alternating field across the buncher gap.
p This field alternately accelerates and decelerates
the electron beam causing electrons to bunch up in
the drift region.
p When the electron bundles pass the catcher gap,
they excite the catcher cavity into resonance.
p RF power is extracted from the catcher cavity by
the coupling loop.
Multicavity Klystrons
p Gain can be increased by inserting intermediate
cavities between the buncher and catcher cavity.
p Each additional cavity increases power gain by
15- to 20-dB.
p Synchronous tuned klystrons have high gain but
very narrow bandwidth, e.g. 0.25 % of f
o
.
p Stagger tuned klystrons have wider bandwidth at
the expense of gain.
p Can operate as oscillator by positive feedback.
Reflex Klystron
Output
Anode
Filament
Cathode
Repeller
Cavity
V
r

Electron
Beam
Condition for oscillation requires electron transit
time to be:
T n t
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
4
3
where n = an integer and
T = period of oscillation
Reflex Klystron Operation
p Electron beam is velocity modulated when passing
though gridded gap of the cavity.
p Repeller decelerates and turns back electrons thus
causing bunching.
p Electrons are collected on the cavity walls and
output power can be extracted.
p Repeller voltage, V
r
, can be used to vary output
frequency and power.
Notes On Reflex Klystrons
pOnly one cavity used.
pNo external dc magnetic field required.
pCompact size.
pCan be used as an oscillator only.
pLow output power and low efficiency.
pOutput frequency can be tuned by V
r
,

or by
changing the dimensions of the cavity.
Travelling-Wave Tube
RF In RF Out
Collector
Helix
Attenuator Electron Beam
The TWT is a linear beam device with the magnetic
field running parallel to tube lengthwise.
The helix is also known as a slow wave structure to
slow down the RF field so that its velocity down the
the tube is close to the velocity of the electron beam.
TWT Operation
p As the RF wave travels along the helix, its positive
and negative oscillations velocity modulate the
electron beam causing the electrons to bunch up.
p The prolonged interaction between the RF wave
and electron beam along the TWT results in
exponential growth of the RF voltage.
p The amplified wave is then extracted at the output.
p The attenuator prevents reflected waves that can
cause oscillations.
Notes On TWTs
p Since interaction between the RF field and the
electron beam is over the entire length of the tube,
the power gain achievable is very high (> 50 dB).
p As TWTs are nonresonant devices, they have
wider bandwidths and lower NF than klystrons.
p TWTs operate from 0.3 to 50 GHz.
p The Twystron tube is a combination of the TWT
and klystron. It gives better gain and BW over
either the conventional TWT or klystron.
Radio- Wave In Free Space
Radio waves propagate as TEM waves in free space.
For an isotropic (i.e. omnidirectional) source:
d
P
E
d
P
P
r
r
D
30
;
4
2
= =
t
where P
D
= power density (W/m
2
); E = electric
field intensity (V/m); P
r
= total radiated power (W);
and d = distance from source (m).
d
Point
Source
Optical Properties Of Radio Waves
p Since light waves and radio waves are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, they behave similarly.
p Thus, radio waves can:
refract at the boundary between two different media
reflect at the surface of a conductor
diffract around the edge of an obstacle
interfere with one and another to degrade performance
p Propagation of radio wave in the atmosphere is
greatly influenced by the frequency of the wave.
Radio Wave Propagation Modes
pIn every terrestrial radio system, there are
three possible modes of propagation:
Ground-wave or surface-wave propagation
Space-wave or direct-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
p At frequencies < 2 MHz, ground wave is best.
p Sky waves are used for HF signals.
p Space waves are used for VHF and above.
Ground-Wave Propagation
Ground waves start out with the electric field being
perpendicular to the ground.
Due to the gradient density of the earths atmosphere
the wavefront tilts progressively.
Direction of wave travel
Increasing
Tilt
Earth
Wavefront
Notes On Ground Waves
p Advantages:
Given enough power, can circumnavigate the earth.
Relatively unaffected by atmospheric conditions.
p Disadvantages:
Require relatively high transmission power.
Require large antennas since frequency is low.
Ground losses vary considerably with terrain.
p Applications: MF broadcasting; ship-to-ship and
ship-to-shore comms; radio navigation; maritime
comms.
Space-Wave Propagation
Most terrestrial communications in the VHF or
higher frequency range use direct, line-of-sight, or
tropospheric radio waves. The approximate
maximum distance of communication is given by:
( )
R T
h h d + = 17
where d = max. distance in km
h
T
= height of the TX antenna in m
h
R
= height of the RX antenna in m
Notes On Space-Waves
p The radio horizon is greater than the optical
horizon by about one third due to refraction of the
atmosphere.
p Reflections from a relatively smooth surface, such
as a body of water, could result in partial
cancellation of the direct signal - a phenomenon
known as fading. Also, large objects, such as
buildings and hills, could cause multipath
distortion from many reflections.
Sky-Wave Propagation
p HF radio waves are returned from the F-layer of
the ionosphere by a form of refraction.
p The highest frequency that is returned to earth in
the vertical direction is called the critical
frequency, f
c
.
p The highest frequency that returns to earth over a
given path is called the maximum usable
frequency (MUF). Because of the general
instability of the ionosphere, the optimum working
frequency (OWF) = 0.85 MUF, is used instead.

Formulas For Sky Waves
pFrom geometry
(assuming flat earth):
d = 2h
v
tan u
i
where h
v
= virtual
height of F-layer

pFrom theory (secant
law):
MUF = f
c
sec u
i

u
i

h
v

d
F-Layer
Earth
Free-Space Path Loss
pDefined as the loss incurred by a radio wave
as it travels in a straight line through a
vacuum with no absorption or reflection of
energy from nearby objects.
pFormula: L
p
(dB) = 92.4 + 20log f + 20log d
where f = frequency of radio wave in GHz
and d = distance in km.
pIf f is in MHz, replace 92.4 above by 32.4.
Fade Margin
p To account for changes in atmospheric conditions,
multipath loss, and terrain sensitivity, a fade
margin, F
m
, must be added to total system loss:
F
m
(dB) = 30log d + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) -70
where d = distance (km), f = frequency (GHz), R
= reliability (decimal value), A = terrain roughness
factor (0.25 to 4), and B = factor to convert worst-
month probability to annual probability (0.125 to 1
depending on humidity or dryness).
Antenna Basics
p An antenna is a passive reciprocal device.
p It acts as a transducer to convert electrical
oscillations in a transmission line or waveguide to
a propagating wave in free space and vice versa.
p It functions as an impedance matcher between a
transmission line or waveguide and free space.
p All antennas have a radiation pattern which is a
plot of the field strength or power density at
various angular positions relative to the antenna.
Antenna Efficiency
An antenna has an equivalent radiation resistance, R
r
given by:
2
i
P
R
r
r
=
where P
r
= power radiated and
i = antenna current at feedpoint
Antenna efficiency:
100 100 x
R R
R
x
P P
P
e r
r
d r
r
+
=
+
= q
where P
d
= power dissipated;
and R
e
= effective antenna resistance.
All the power supplied to the antenna is not radiated.
Directive Gain & Power Gain
Directive gain of an antenna is given by:
Dr
D
P
P
D =
where P
D
= power density at some point
with a given antenna; P
Dr
= power density
at the same point with a reference antenna.
Reference antenna is generally the isotropic source.
When antenna efficiency is taken into account
directive gain becomes power gain: A
p
= q D.
In decibels, power gain is 10 log A
p

Maximum directive gain is called directivity.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
EIRP is the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna
would have to radiate to achieve the same power
density at a given point as another antenna:
EIRP = P
r
A
t
= P
in
A
p

where P
r
= total radiated power; P
in
= antenna input power;
A
t
= TX antenna directive gain; and A
p
= antenna power gain.
Therefore, the power density at a distance, d, from an
antenna is:
2 2
4 4 d
A P
d
EIRP
P
t r
D
t t
= =
Antenna Miscellany
p Power captured by the receiving antenna with an
effective area, A
eff
, is C = P
D
A
eff
. Note that A
eff
includes the gain and efficiency of the antenna.
p Antennas can be linearly, elliptically or circularly
polarized depending on their E-field radiated.
p Antenna beamwidth is the angular separation
between the two half-power points on the major
lobe of the antennas plane radiation pattern.
p Antenna input impedance, Z
in
= E
i
/I
i

Half-Wave Dipole
Balanced Feedline
Symbol
/2
Simple and most widely used at f > 2 MHz.
Its a resonant antenna since its length is 2 x /4.
Z
in
= 73 O approx.; Z
max
= 2500 O approx. at ends
Radiation pattern of dipole in free space has two
main lobes perpendicular to the antenna axis.
Has a gain of about 2.15 dBi
Free-Space Radiation Pattern of Dipole
Ground & Length Effects On Dipole
p Since the ground reflects radio waves, it has a
significant effect on the radiation pattern and
impedance of the half-wave dipole.
p Generally speaking, the closer the dipole is to the
ground, the more lobes will form and the lower the
radiation impedance.
p Length also has an effect on the dipole antenna:
dipoles shorter than /2 is capacitive while dipoles
longer than /2 is inductive.
Marconi/Monopole Antenna
Main characteristics:
vertical and /4
good ground plane is
required
omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane
3 dBd power gain
impedance: about 36O
Antenna Impedance Matching
p Antennas should be matched to their feedline for
maximum power transfer efficiency by using an
LC matching network.
p A simple but effective technique for matching a
short vertical antenna to a feedline is to increase
its electrical length by adding an inductance at its
base. This inductance, called a loading coil,
cancels the capacitive effect of the antenna.
p Another method is to use capacitive loading.

Antenna Loading
Inductive Loading
Capacitive Loading
Antenna Arrays
p Antenna elements can be combined in an array to
increase gain and get desired radiation pattern.
p Arrays can be classified as broadside or end-fire,
according to their direction of maximum radiation.
p In a phased array, all elements are fed or driven;
i.e. they are connected to the feedline.
p Some arrays have only one driven element with
several parasitic elements which act to absorb and
reradiate power radiated from the driven element.
Yagi-Uda Array
p More commonly known as the Yagi array, it has
one driven element, one reflector, and one or more
directors.
Radiation
pattern
Characteristics of Yagi Array
unidirectional radiation pattern (one main lobe,
some sidelobes and backlobes)
relatively narrow bandwidth since it is resonant
3-element array has a gain of about 7 dBi
more directors will increase gain and reduce the
beamwidth and feedpoint impedance
a folded dipole is generally used for the driven
element to widen the bandwidth and increase the
feedpoint impedance.

Folded Dipole
p Often used - alone or with other elements - for TV
and FM broadcast receiving antennas because it
has a wider bandwidth and four times the
feedpoint resistance of a single dipole.

2
Feed line
Z
in
= 288 O
Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)
Feed
line
o
L
6

L
5

L
4

L
3
L
2

D
6

D
5

Direction of main lobe
Apex
Characteristics of LPDA
feedpoint impedance is a periodic function of log f
unidirectional radiation and wide bandwidth
shortest element is less than or equal to /2 of
highest frequency, while longest element is at least
/2 of lowest frequency
reasonable gain, but lower than that of Yagi for
the same number of elements
design parameter, t = L
1
/L
2
= D
1
/D
2
= L
2
/L
3
= .
used mainly as HF, VHF, and TV antennas
Turnstile Array
omnidirectional
radiation in the
horizontal plane, with
horizontal polarization
gain of about 3 dB less
than that of a single
dipole
often used for FM
broadcast RX and TX
Half-wave dipoles
fed 90
o
out-of phase
Collinear Array
all elements lie along a
straight line, fed in
phase, and often
mounted with main
axis vertical
result in narrow
radiation beam
omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane when
antenna is vertical
Half-wave
Elements
Feed
Line
Quarter-wave
Shorted Stub
Broadside Array
all /2 elements are fed in phase and spaced /2
with axis placed vertically, radiation would have a
narrow bidirectional horizontal pattern
Feed
Line
Half-wave
Dipoles

2
End-Fire Array
dipole elements are fed 90
o
out of phase resulting
in a narrow unidirectional radiation pattern off the
end of the antenna
Feed
Line

4
RadiationPattern
Half-wave
Dipoles
Non-resonant Antennas
p Monopole and dipole antennas are classified as
resonant type since they operate efficiently only at
frequencies that make their elements close to /2.
p Non-resonant antennas do not use dipoles and are
usually terminated with a matching load resistor.
p They have a broader bandwidth and a radiation
pattern that has only one or two main lobes.
p Examples of non-resonant antennas are long-wire
antennas, vee antennas, and rhombic antennas.
Loop Antenna
Main characteristics:
very small dimensions
bidirectional
greatest sensitivity in
the plane of the loop
very wide bandwidth
efficient as RX
antenna with single or
multi-turn loop
Feedline
Helical Antenna
S
D
Ground
Plane
Coaxial
Feedline
End-fire Helical
Antenna
broadband (+ 20% of f
o
)
circularly polarized
A
p
=

15 dB; u
-3dB
= 20
o
are typical
when S, D, & # of turns increase:
A
p
increases and u decreases
to get higher gain and narrower
beamwidth, use an array
applications: V/UHF antenna;
satellite tracking antenna
UHF & Microwave Antennas
p highly directive and beamwidth of about 1
o
or less
p antenna dimensions >> wavelength of signal
p front-to-back ratio of 20 dB or more
p utilize parabolic reflector as secondary antenna for
high gain
p primary feed is either a dipole or horn antenna
p use for point-to-point and satellite
communications

Parabolic Reflector Antenna
Power gain and -3 dB
beamwidth are:
D
D
A
p
t
q
70
;
2
2 2
= =
where q = antenna efficiency
(0.55 is typical);
D = dish diameter (m); and
= wavelength (m)
Hog-horn Antenna
The hog-horn antenna,
often used for
terrestrial microwave
links, integrates the
feed horn and a
parabolic reflecting
surface to provide an
obstruction-free path
for incoming and
outgoing signals.
Parabolic
Section
Feed
Horn
Microwave Radio Communications
p Can be classified as either terrestrial or satellite
systems.
p Early systems use FDM (frequency division
multiplex) technique.
p More recent systems use PCM/PSK (pulse code
modulation/phase shift keying) technique.
p Microwave system capacities range from less than
12 VB (voice-band) channels to > 22,000.
p Operate from 24 km to 6,400 km.
Simplified Block Diagram
Preemphasized
Baseband
Input
FM
Modulator
Upconverter
Mixer BPF
C
h
.

C
o
m
b
i
n
e
r

IF Oscillator
RF Oscillator
RF
Out
Deemphasized
Baseband
Output
FM
Detector
Downconverter
Mixer BPF
C
h
.

S
e
p
a
r
a
t
o
r

RF Oscillator
RF
In
FM Microwave Receiver
FM Microwave Transmitter
Amp
Amp
Notes On FM Microwave Radio System
p Baseband signals may comprise one or more of :
Frequency-division-multiplexed voice-band channels
Time-division-multiplexed VB channels
Broadcast-quality composite video or picturephone
Wideband data
p IF carrier is typically 70 MHz
p Low-index frequency modulation is used
p Common microwave frequencies used: 2-, 4-, 6-,
12-, and 14-GHz bands.
Microwave Radio Systems (contd)
p The distance between transmitter and receiver is
typically between 24 to 64 km.
p Repeaters have to be used for longer distances.
p To increase the reliability of microwave links, the
following techniques can be used:
frequency diversity - two RF carrier frequencies
space diversity - two or more antennas are used
polarization diversity - vertical and horizontal
polarization
System Gain
pSystem gain for microwave radio link is:
G
s
(dB) = P
t
- C
min
= F
m
+ L
p
+ L
f
+ L
b
- A
t
-
A
r

where P
t
= transmitter output power (dBm)
C
min
= min. receiver input power (dBm)
F
m
=fade margin for a given reliability objective (dB)
L
p
= free-space path loss between antennas (dB)
L
f
, L
b
= feeder, coupling, & branching losses (dB)
A
t
, A
r
= Tx and Rx antenna gain respectively (dB)
Introduction To Pulsed Radar
t
PRT
Pulse of energy
Pulse Repetition Time
Pulse repetition frequency, PRF = 1/PRT
Range to target, R = ct/2, where c = speed of light,
and t = time between TX pulse and echo return.
Dead zone, R
dead
, and resolution, AR, are both = ct/2.
Duty cycle, D = t/PRT
Resolution can be improved by pulse compression.
Radar Power & Range Equation
Average power, P
a
= P
p
t(PRF) = P
p
t/PRT = P
p
D
where P
p
= peak power.
Ideal radar range equation:
4 3
2 2
) 4 ( R
G P
P
a
R
t
o
=
where P
R
= signal power returned (W)
G = antenna gain
= wavelength of signal (m)
o = radar cross section of target (m
2
)
In the real world, losses and noise must be added
to above equation.
Pulsed Radar Block Diagram
Video
Amp
Video
Detector
IF
Amp
LO
Mixer RF
Amp
T/R
Switch
Control Section
Modulator
Timer
Transmitter
Signal
Processor
Display
Receiver Section
Antenna
Radar Display Modes
Range
Target
Elevation
N
Beam
Sweep
Targets
E-Scan
Plan Position
Indicator
CW Doppler Radar
Microwave
Oscillator
Doppler
Mixer
TX
RX
f
d

The Doppler effect
can be used for
determining the
speed of a moving target.
v = f
d
/2 (m/s)
where f
d
= doppler shift (Hz)
= radar wavelength (m)
Circulator
Basic block diagram
of CW Doppler radar
FM Doppler Radar
Both distance and velocity can be determined if
an FM Doppler radar is used.
f
d+

f
d-

t
f
i

f
o

TX
RX
a
f f c
R
d d
4
) (
+
+
=
Range:
Velocity:
o
d d
f
f f c
v
4
) (
+

=
where a = slope of line
or rate of change of f
i

Optical Fibre Communications
p Advantages over metallic/coaxial cable:
much wider bandwidth and practically interference-free
lower loss and light weight
more resistive to environmental effects
safer and easier to install
almost impossible to tap into a fibre cable
potentially lower in cost over the long term
p Disadvantages:
higher initial cost in installation & more expensive to
repair/maintain
Optical Fibre Link
Input
Signal
Coder or
Converter
Light
Source
Source-to-fibre
Interface
Fibre-to-light
Interface
Light
Detector
Amplifier/Shaper
Decoder
Output
Fibre-optic Cable
Transmitter
Receiver
Types Of Optical Fibre
Single-mode step-index fibre
Multimode step-index fibre
Multimode graded-index fibre
n
1
core
n
2
cladding
n
o
air
n
2
cladding
n
1
core
Variable
n
n
o
air
Light
ray
Index porfile
Comparison Of Optical Fibres
p Single-mode step-index fibre:
minimum signal dispersion; higher TX rate possible
difficult to couple light into fibre; highly directive light
source (e.g. laser) required; expensive to manufacture
p Multimode step-index fibres:
inexpensive; easy to couple light into fibre
result in higher signal distortion; lower TX rate
p Multimode graded-index fibre:
intermediate between the other two types of fibres
Acceptance Cone & Numerical Aperture
n
2
cladding
n
2
cladding
n
1
core
Acceptance
Cone
Acceptance angle, u
c
, is the maximum angle in which
external light rays may strike the air/fibre interface
and still propagate down the fibre with <10 dB loss.
2
2
2
1
1
sin n n
C
=

u
Numerical aperture:
NA = sin u
c
=

E(n
1
2
- n
2
2
)
u
C

Losses In Optical Fibre Cables
p The predominant losses in optic fibres are:
absorption losses due to impurities in the fibre material
material or Rayleigh scattering losses due to
microscopic irregularities in the fibre
chromatic or wavelength dispersion because of the use
of a non-monochromatic source
radiation losses caused by bends and kinks in the fibre
modal dispersion or pulse spreading due to rays taking
different paths down the fibre
coupling losses caused by misalignment & imperfect
surface finishes
Absorption Losses In Optic Fibre
L
o
s
s

(
d
B
/
k
m
)

1
0
0.7 0.8
Wavelength (m)
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
2
3
4
5
6
Peaks caused
by OH
-
ions
Infrared
absorption
Rayleigh scattering
& ultraviolet
absorption
Fibre Alignment Impairments
Axial displacement Gap displacement
Angular displacement Imperfect surface finish
Light Sources
p Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
made from material such as AlGaAs or GaAsP
light is emitted when electrons and holes
recombine
either surface emitting or edge emitting
p Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)
similar in construction as LED except ends are
highly polished to reflect photons back & forth
ILD versus LED
pAdvantages:
more focussed radiation pattern; smaller fibre
much higher radiant power; longer span
faster ON, OFF time; higher bit rates possible
monochromatic light; reduces dispersion
pDisadvantages:
much more expensive
higher temperature; shorter lifespan
Optical Transmitter Circuits
+V
CC

Data Input
Enable
C
1

R
1
LED
Q
1

R
2

+HV
ILD
C
2

Enable
C
1

R
1

Q
1

R
2

R
3

Data Input
Light Detectors
p PIN Diodes
photons are absorbed in the intrinsic layer
sufficient energy is added to generate carriers in the
depletion layer for current to flow through the device
p Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)
photogenerated electrons are accelerated by relatively
large reverse voltage and collide with other atoms to
produce more free electrons
avalanche multiplication effect makes APD more
sensitive but also more noisy than PIN diodes
Photodetector Circuit
+V
R
1

-
-
+
+
+ -
Threshold adjust
Enable
Comparator
shaper
PIN or
APD
Data
Out
Bandwidth & Power Budget
p The maximum data rate R (Mbps) for a cable of given
distance D (km) with a dispersion d (s/km) is:
R = 1/(5dD)
p Power or loss margin, L
m
(dB) is:
L
m
= P
r
- P
s
= P
t
- M - L
sf
- (DxL
f
) - L
c
- L
fd
- P
s

0
where P
r
= received power (dBm), P
s
= receiver
sensitivity(dBm),

P
t
= Tx power (dBm), M = contingency
loss allowance (dB), L
sf
= source-to-fibre loss (dB), L
f
=
fibre loss (dB/km), L
c
= total connector/splice losses (dB),
L
fd
= fibre-to-detector loss (dB).

K K TWT M Communication 2

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Heng Chan; Mohawk College 1

Heng Chan; Mohawk College 60

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