Power Amplifier and Differential Amplifier

AMPLIFIER TERMS
Classes of Operation
Class A operation the transistor operates in the active region at
all times
the collector current flows for 360 of the ac cycle
the designer usually tries to locate the Q point somewhere near
the middle of the load line.
the signal can swing over the maximum possible range without
saturating or cutting-off the transistor, which would distort the
signal.
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Class B Operation
the collector current flows for only half the cycle (180)
a designer locates the Q point at cut-off
only the positive half of ac base voltage can produce
collector current
reduces heat in power transistors
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Class C Operation
the collector current flows for less than 180 of
the cycle
only part of the positive half-cycle of ac base
voltage produces collector current
brief pulses of collector current
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Types of Coupling
Capacitive Coupling
the coupling capacitor transmits the amplified ac
voltage to the next stage
ac coupling
blocks the dc voltage
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Transformer Coupling
the ac voltage is coupled through a transformer
to the next stage
ac coupling
blocks the dc voltage
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Direct Coupling
there is a direct connection between the collector of the
first transistor and the base of the second transistor
both the dc and ac voltages are coupled
there is no lower frequency limit
dc amplifier
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Ranges of Frequency
Audio Amplifier an amplifier that operates in the
range of 20Hz to 20kHz
Radio-Frequency (RF) Amplifier one that
amplifies frequencies above 20 kHz, usually much
higher
Narrowband Amplifiers works over a small
frequency range
Tunes RF Amplifiers their ac load is a high-Q resonant
tank tuned to a radio station or television channel
Wideband Amplifier operates over a large
frequency range
Untuned their ac load is resistive

AMPLIFIER TERMS
Tuned RF Amplifiers
AMPLIFIER TERMS
Signal Levels
Small-signal Operation the peak-to-peak swing
in collector current is less than 10% of quiescent
collector current
Large-signal Operation a peak-to-peak signal
uses all or most of the load line
Stereo System : the small signal from a radio tuner,
tape player, or compact disc player is used as the
input to a preamp, an amplifier that produces a
larger output suitable for driving tone and volume
controls. The signal is then used as the input to a
power amplifier, which produces output power
ranging from a few hundred milliwatts up to
hundreds of watts
TWO LOAD LINES
DC Load Line
One way to move the Q point is by varying the
value of R
2
large values of R
2
: I
C(sat)
= V
CC
/ (R
C
+ R
E
)
very small values of R
2
: V
CE(cutoff)
= V
CC
TWO LOAD LINES
AC Load Line
R
E
has no effect on the ac operation
the ac collector resistance is less than the dc collector resistance
when an ac signal comes in, the instantaneous operating point
moves along the ac load line
the peak-to-peak sinusoidal current and voltage are determined by
the ac load line
MPP < VCC
where: MPP
maximum peak-
to-peak output
voltage
TWO LOAD LINES
Equation of the ac load line:
I
C
= I
CQ
+ V
CEQ
/r
c
+ V
CE
/r
c
When the transistor goes into saturation:
i
c(sat)
= I
CQ
+ V
CEQ
/r
c
When the transistor goes into cut-off:
v
ce(cutoff)
= V
CEQ
+ I
CQ
r
c
where: i
c(sat)
= ac saturation current
I
CQ
= dc collector current
V
CEQ
= dc collector-emitter voltage
r
c
= ac resistance seen by the collector
v
ce(cutoff)
= ac cut-off voltage
TWO LOAD LINES
Clipping of Large Signals
when the Q point is at the center of the dc load
line, the ac signal cannot use all of the ac load
line without clipping
if the ac signal increases, a cut-off clipping will
result

TWO LOAD LINES
If the Q point is moved higher, a large signal
will drive the transistor into saturation
a saturation clipping will occur
TWO LOAD LINES
A well-designed large-signal amplifier has a
Q point at the middle of the ac load line
results in a maximum peak-to-peak
unclipped output
ac output compliance
TWO LOAD LINES
Maximum Output
Q point below the center of the ac load line:
maximum peak (MP) = I
CQ
r
c
Q point above the center of the ac load line:
maximum peak (MP) = V
CEQ
Maximum Peak-to Peak Output
MPP = 2MP

TWO LOAD LINES
When the Q point is at the center of the ac
load line:
I
CQ
r
e
= V
CEQ
The circuits emitter resistance can be
adjusted to find the optimum Q point:
R
E
= (R
C
+ r
c
) / (V
CC
/V
E
) -1
CLASS A OPERATION
Power Gain equals the ac output power
divided by the ac input power
A
p
= p
out
/ p
in
CLASS A OPERATION
Output Power
in rms volts: p
out
= v
rms
2
/ RL
in peak-to peak volts: p
out
= v
out
2
/ 8RL
maximum output power occurs when the
amplifier is producing the maximum peak-to-
peak output voltage
v
out
= MPP
2
/ 8RL
CLASS A OPERATION
Transistor Power Dissipation
Quiescent Power Dissipation : P
DQ
= V
CEQ
I
CQ
When signal is present: the power dissipation of
a transistor decreases
worst case: quiescent power dissipation
power rating must be greater than P
DQ
CLASS A OPERATION
Current Drain
dc source has to supply a dc current I
dc
to the
amplifier
dc current is called current drain
I
dc
has two components:
the biasing current through the voltage divider
collector current through the transistor
CLASS A OPERATION
Efficiency
dc power supplied to an amplifier by the source:
P
dc
= V
CC
I
dc
efficiency used to compare the design of
power amplifiers
q = p
out
/ P
dc
x 100%
ac output power divided by the dc input power
CLASS A OPERATION
Efficiency
a way to compare two different designs because
it indicates how well an amplifier converts the dc
input power to ac output power
between 0 and 100 percent
the higher the efficiency, the better the amplifier
is at converting dc power to ac power
important in battery-operated equipment
CLASS A OPERATION
Efficiency in Class A Amplifier
the maximum efficiency of a class A amplifier
with a dc collector resistance and separate load
resistance is 25%
in some applications, the low frequency of class
A is acceptable
CLASS A OPERATION
Example: If the peak-to-peak output voltage is 18V and the
input impedance of the base is 100O, what is the power
gain? What is the transistor power dissipation and
efficiency?
CLASS A OPERATION
Class A Power Amplifier
class A power amplifier driving a loudspeaker
uses voltage-divider bias
the ac input signal is transformer-coupled to the base
produces voltage and power gain to drive the
loudspeaker through the output transformer
CLASS A OPERATION
Class A Power Amplifier
the load resistance is also the ac collector
resistance
the efficiency of this class A amplifier is higher
Impedance-reflecting ability of a transformer:
( N
p
/N
s
)
2
the maximum efficiency increases to 50%

CLASS A OPERATION
Emitter-Follower Power Amplifier
locate the Q point at the center of the ac load
line to get maximum peak-to-peak output
CLASS A OPERATION
large values of R
2
saturate the transistor
I
C(sat)
= V
CC
/ R
E
small values of R
2
drive the transistor into
cut-off
V
CE(cutoff)
= V
CC
CLASS A OPERATION
ac load line end points:
i
c(sat)
= I
CQ
+ V
CE
/r
e
V
CE(cutoff)
= V
CE
+ I
CQ
r
e
MPP < V
CC

CLASS A OPERATION
Q point is below the center of the ac load
line:
maximum peak (MP) = I
CQ
r
e
Q point is above the center of the load line:
maximum peak (MP) = V
CEQ

CLASS B OPERATION
Push-Pull Circuit
clips off half a cycle
use two transistors in a push-pull arrangement
push-pull one transistor conducts for half
cycle while the other is off and vice versa

CLASS B OPERATION
Advantages and Disadvantages
there is no current drain when the signal is zero
the maximum efficiency of a class-B push-pull
amplifier is 78.5%
the uses of transformer
CLASS B OPERATION
Class B Push-Pull Emitter Follower
an npn emitter follower and a pnp emitter
follower connected in push-pull arrangement
CLASS B OPERATION
DC Equivalent Circuit
select biasing resistors to set the Q-point at cut-
off
this biases the emitter diode of each transistor
between 0.6 and 0.7
I
CQ
= 0
V
CEQ
= V
CC
/ 2
CLASS B OPERATION
DC Load Line
the dc saturation current is infinite
dc load line is vertical
difficult thing: setting up a stable Q point at
cut-off
CLASS B OPERATION
AC Load Line
operating point moves up along the ac load line
voltage swing of the conducting transistor can
go all the way from cut-off to saturation
MPP = V
CC
CLASS B OPERATION
AC Analysis
almost identical to a Class-A emitter follower
A
V
~ 1
z
in(base)
= |R
L
CLASS B OPERATION
Crossover Distortion
distorted output signal
crossover distortion the clipping occurs between the time one
transistor cuts-off and the other one comes on
there is a need to apply a slight forward bias to each emitter diode
I
CQ
from 1 to 5% of I
C(sat)
CLASS B OPERATION
Class AB
a conduction angle between 180 and 360
CLASS B OPERATION
Power Formulas
CLASS B OPERATION
ideally: power dissipation is zero when there is
no input signal
input signal: P
D(max)
= MPP
2
/ 40 R
L
CLASS B OPERATION
Example: The adjustable resistor sets both emitter diodes
on the verge of conduction. What is the maximum transistor
power dissipation? The maximum output power? If the
adjustable resistance is 15O, what is the efficiency?
CLASS B OPERATION
Biasing Class B/AB Amplifiers
Voltage-Divider Bias
thermal runaway then the temperature increases, the
collector current increases, the junction temperature
increases even more, reducing the correct V
BE
CLASS B OPERATION
Diode Bias
compensating diodes produces the bias
voltage for the emitter diodes
I
bias
= (V
CC
2V
BE
) / 2R
I
CQ
has the same value as I
bias
CLASS C OPERATION
Class C Operation
the collector current flows for less than half a
cycle
parallel resonant circuit: can filter the pulses
of collector current and produce a pure sine
wave of output voltage
tuned RF amplifiers
maximum efficiency can be 100%

CLASS C OPERATION
Tuned RF Amplifier
resonant frequency: f
r
= 1 / 2t\ LC
always intended to amplify a narrow band of
frequencies
ideal for amplifying radio and television signals
CLASS C OPERATION
Load Lines
CLASS C OPERATION
DC Clamping of Input Signal
input signal: drives the emitter diode
amplified current pulses: drives the resonant tank circuit
the input capacitor is part of a negative dc clamper
the signal appearing across the emitter diode is negatively clamped
CLASS C OPERATION
Filtering Harmonics
harmonics - multiples of the input frequency;
equivalent to a group of sine waves with
frequencies of f, 2f, 3f,..., nf
resonant tank circuit has a high impedance
only at the fundamental frequency f
CLASS C OPERATION
Class C Formulas
tuned class C amplifier a narrowband
amplifier
Bandwidth : BW = f
2
f
1
BW = f
r
/ Q
a large sinusoidal voltage at resonance with a
rapid drop-off above and below resonance
CLASS C OPERATION
Current Dip at Resonance
tune a resonant tank: look for a decrease in the dc current supplied
to the circuit
measure the current I
dc
from the power supply while tuning the
circuit
at resonant frequency: the ammeter reading will dip to a minimum
value
the tank has a maximum impedance at this point
CLASS C OPERATION
AC Collector Resistance
Q
L
= X
L
/ R
S
R
P
= Q
L
X
L
at resonance: X
L
cancels X
C
r
c
= R
P
//R
L
Q = r
c
/ X
L
CLASS C OPERATION
Duty Cycle
D = W / T
the smaller the duty cycle, the narrower the pulses
compared to the period
typical class C amplifier has a small duty cycle
the efficiency of a class C amplifier increases as the duty
cycle decreases
CLASS C OPERATION
Conduction Angle
equivalent way to state the duty cycle
D = | / 360
CLASS C OPERATION
maximum output: MPP = 2 VCC
V
CEQ
> 2VCC
conduction angle is much less than 180
the collector current reaches a maximum value of I
C(sat)
peak current rating > I
C(sat)
power dissipation depends on the conduction angle
P
D
= MPP
2
/40r
c
CLASS C OPERATION
Stage Efficiency
for a conduction angle of 180, the average or
dc collector current is I
C(sat)
/t
optimum stage efficiency varies with the
conduction angle
CLASS C OPERATION
Example: If Q
L
is 100, what is the bandwidth
of the amplifier?
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Differential Amplifier
two CE stages in parallel with a common emitter resistor
two input voltages: v
1
(non-inverting) and v
2
(inverting)
two collector voltages
no lower cut-off frequency
differential output: v
out
= v
c2
- v
c1
differential input: v
out
= A
V
(v
1
-v2)
Single-Ended Output
floating load neither end of the load can be grounded
single-ended one end is grounded
output voltage: v
out
= A
V
(v
1
-v
2
)
the voltage gain is half as much as with a differential
output
Non-inverting Input and a Differential Output
v
out
= A
V
(V
1
)

Non-inverting Input and a Single-ended Output
v
ou
t = A
V
(V
1
) but A
V
will be half as much
Inverting Input and Differential Output
v
out
= - A
V
(v
2
)

Inverting Input and Single-ended Output
v
out
= -A
V
(v
2
) but voltage gain will be half as much
DC Analysis of a Differential Amplifier
tail current: I
T
= V
EE
/ R
E
emitter current of each transistor: I
E
= I
T
/ 2
dc voltage on either collector: V
C
= V
CC
- I
C
R
C
DC Analysis Second Approximation
I
T
= (V
EE
V
BE
) / R
E
Effect of Base Resistors: I
T
= (V
EE
-V
BE
)/ R
E
+
R
B
/2|
dc
)
Example: Calculate the currents and voltages
using ideal and second approximations.
AC ANALYSIS OF A DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Non-inverting Input and Single-ended Output
the two halves of a differential amplifier respond in a complementary
manner to the non-inverting input
Q
1
acts like an emitter follower that produces an ac voltage across
the emitter resistor
the amplified output sine wave is in phase with the non-inverting
input
Single-Ended Output Gain
each transistor has an r
e

the biasing resistor R
E
is in parallel with the r
e
of the right
transistor
R
E
is much greater than r
e

Simplified Equivalent Circuit
input voltage v
i
across the first r
e
is in series with the
second r
e

ac voltage across the tail resistor is half of the input
voltage
Single-ended output: A
V
=R
C
/2r
e

Differential Output Gain
the output voltage is twice as much since there
are two collector resistors
Differential Output: A
V
= R
C
/ r
e

Inverting-Input Configurations
the inverting input v
2
produces an amplified and
inverted ac voltage at the final output
Differential-Input Configurations
both inputs are active at the same time
Differential Input: A
V
= (v
1
v
2
)
Table of Voltage Gains
the voltage gain is maximum with a differential output
the voltage gain is cut in half when a single-ended
output is used
Input Impedance
In CE stage: z
in
= |r
e
In a differential amplifier: z
in
= 2|r
e
Example: What is the ac output voltage? If
|=300, what is the input impedance of the
differential amplifier?
Example: What is the ac output voltage in
the figure? If |=300, what is the input
impedance of the differential amplifier?
Common-Mode Gain
same input voltage, v
in(cm)
is being applied to each base
common mode signal
differential amplifier does not amplify common-mode
signals
Equivalent Circuit
since equal voltages v
in(cm)
drive both inputs
simultaneously, there is almost no current
through the wire between the emitters
Right side acts like swamped amplifier
with common-mode input
A
v(cm)
= R
C
/ 2R
E
the common-mode voltage gain is usually less
than 1
AC ANALYSIS OF A DIFFERNTIOAL AMPLIFIER
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
voltage gain divided by common-mode voltage
gain
CMRR = A
v
/ A
V(cm)
the higher the CMRR the better
Data sheets usually specify CMRR in decibels
CMRR
(dB)
= 20 log CMRR
Example: What is the common-mode
voltage gain? The output voltage?
Example: In the figure, A
v
= 150, A
v(cm)=
0.5,
and v
in
= 1mV. If the base leads are picking
up a common-mode signal of 1mV, what is
the output voltage?
Example: A 741 is an op-amp with
A
v
=200,000 and CMRR
dB
= 90dB. What is
the common-mode voltage gain? If the
desired and common-mode signal each has
a value of 1V, what is the output voltage?

Power Amplifier and Differential Amplifier

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AMPLIFIER TERMS

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