Wave, Loads in the fabrication,

tow-out, & installation phases

& Current load
Berlian Arswendo Adietya
198608262010121005

outline
Wave theory & loads
Functional loads:
Loads in the fabrication, tow-out, & installation
phases
Current loads on structures:
Current drag & lift forces
Blockage factor in current
Ocean surface wave
They are primarily by the drag of the
wind on the water surface
For engineering purposes two
methods available to analyze the effect
of the surface wave on structures:
1. A single design wave chosen to represent
extreme storm conditions,
2. A statistical representation of the wave during
extreme storm conditions.
Wave theories
We need to relate the surface-wave data
to the water:
Velocity
Acceleration, &
Pressure beneath the waves

By the use of an appropriate
Wave Theory
Wave theories (cont. )
Airy wave theory
Stokes wave theory
Cnoidal wave theory
Each of them has specific limitation &
application dependent on the
characteristics of the water area
DESIGN LOADS WAVE & CURRENT
LOADS
Two different analysis concepts:
1. Design/ regular wave concept:
A regular wave of given height and period is
defined and the forces due to this wave are
calculated using a high-order wave theory.
Usually the 100-year wave is chosen.
No dynamic behavior of the structure is considered.
This static analysis is appropriate when the
dominant wave periods are well above the period of
the structure.
This is the case of extreme storm waves acting on
shallow water structures.
Wave & current loads (cont. )
2. Statistical analysis:
On the basis of a wave scatter diagram for the
location of the structure.
Appropriate wave spectra are defined to perform the
analysis in the frequency domain and to generate
random waves, if dynamic analyses for extreme wave
loadings are required for deepwater structures.
With statistical methods, the most probable maximum
force during the lifetime of the structure is calculated
using linear wave theory.
The statistical approach has to be chosen to analyze
the fatigue strength and the dynamic behavior of the
structure.

Wave Statistics
Wave Spectrum
The regular wave theories are applicable in a design where a
single wave method is employed. In this case an extreme
wave is represented by a regular wave of the appropriate
height and period. This method provides a simple analysis in
determining the extreme response of an offshore structure.
The random ocean wave, on the other hand, is described by
an energy density spectrum. The wave energy spectrum
describes the energy content of an ocean wave and its
distribution over a frequency range of the random wave.
Therefore, the random wave method of design may be
important especially in the design of floating structures. The
random wave is generally described by its statistical
parameters.
Wave Spectrum
Wave Spectrum
Wave Spectrum
Airy wave theory
Simple theory of wave motion G.B. Airy
(1842)
Assumption:
a Sinusoidal wave form,
H/ & H/h small
Valuable for preliminary calculation & revealing
the basic characteristics of wave-induced water
motion
A basis for the statistical representation of
waves & induced water motion during storm
conditions.
Definition of wave parameters
Airy wave theory
Airy wave theory
Stokes wave theory
G.G. Stokes (1847) an extension of Airy
theory wave of finite height
Expansion the wave solution in series form
determine the coeffs. of individual terms to
satisfy the appropriate hydrodynamic equations
for finite-amplitude wave.
Stokes wave theory:
Stokes third-order wave theory (Skjelbreia, 1959 &
Wiegel, 1964)
Stokes fifth-order wave theory (Skjelbreia &
Hendrickson, 1961)
Stokes wave theory (cont. )
Stokes fifth-order wave theory:
Widely used in ocean eng. Calculations for
finite amplitude waves.
Convergence of the series is slow shallow
water
Most nearly valid in water relative depth
(h/ > 1/10) met for storm wave conditions
for the design of fixed offshore platforms.
Cnoidal wave theory
Cnoidal wave theory Firstly presented by
Korteweg & deVries (1895) developed further
by Wiegel (1960) for practical application.
More satisfactory applicable for shallow water
Expressed in term of tabulated elliptic functions
& integrals
The theory assumes H/h is sufficiently small
that its square can be neglected.
Applicability of wave theories
H/ ?
h/ ?
How the Airy theory can be used to
obtain a reasonable accurate
estimate of the wave
characteristics ??
A main feature of the more accurate Stokes &
Cnoidal theory the increase of the crest
amplitude of a wave over that given by Airy
theory.
Applicability of wave theories
Allowable error
in the crest
ampl. of 10%.
Applicability of wave theories
The obvious question is, when is one of these
theories suitable for application??
A region of validity of the various theories that
are applicable to offshore structures in relatively
deeper waters is presented in fig. 3.12. The
chart is taken from API RP2A Guidelines (2000),
Since the basic wave parameters are H, T and d,
the regions are shown as functions of H/(gT
2
)
and d/(gT
2
)
Applicability of wave theories
An example :
Take a wave of height 30
m, period of 16 s in a
water depth of 160 m.
Then H/(g.T
2
) = 0.012 and
d/(g.T
2
) =0.064.
From the chart (in the
figure), the applicable
wave theory is Stokes
third-order.
A fifth-order Stokes
wave may be applied here
as well.
Applicability of wave theories
A rule of thumb for the practical application of wave
theory is presented here with recommendation for the
appropriate theory in specific cases.
The theories for the cases shown are suggestions for
normal applications.
Wave force on vertical cylinders
Morison et al. (1950)
D/ < 1/10
C
D
& C
I
= drag & inertia coeff.
u & a
x
= horizontal acc. & vel.
Of wave particle (from an
appropriate wave theory)
API (1980): C
D
= 0.6 ~ 1.0
C
I
= 1.5 ~ 2.0
( )
}
}
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
y
x I D
y
dy a C D u u D C Fw
dy Fi Fd Fw
0
2
0
4
1
2
1
t
Drag term
Inertia term
Effects of relative motion
When the motion of the cylinder is considered:
The drag force reduced by the relative motion
The inertia force reduced by a factor proportional
to the acc. of the cylinder
: the horizontal velocity & acc. of the cylinder
element
}
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
y
I x I D
dy x
D
C a C
D
x u x u D C Fw
0
2 2
4
) 1 (
4
) (
2
1

t

t

x x ,
Effects of cylinder diameter
When the D/ > 1/10 the distortion of the
wave due to the cylinder must be considered
Diffraction theory (MacCamy & Fuchs, 1954 and
Mogridge & Jamieson, 1976) :
Drag forces are negligible in comparison with inertia
forces.
The effect of the cylinder is to modify the value of the
inertia coeff. in Morison eq & introduce a phase angle
lag
WAVE DIRECTION
1
2
A
B
1
2
A
B
Wave force on arbitrarily oriented
cylinder
The determination of wave force on cross
bracing & on inclined (battered) piles of
offshore platform.
Chakrabarti et al. (1975):
Resolving the water velocity & acc. into
components normal & tangential to the
cylinder axis
Using only the normal comps. in Moriso eq. to
calculate the wave force per unit length of the
cylinder.
Wave lift and slamming Loads
In addition to the forces given by Morison's
equation, the lift forces FD and the
slamming forces FS, typically neglected in
global response computations, can be
important for local member design.
F
L
= (1/2) C
L
Dv
2

F
S
= (1/2) Cs Dv
2
CL 1,3 CD.
Cs For tubular members

Dropped Object & Collision Loads
The impact Energy due to
dropped object:
E = M.g
o
.h
E: impact (dropped) energy
(kJ)
M: mass of objects (tonnes)
go: ground acceleration
(9.81 m/s
2
)
h : dropped height in air (m)
The weight of the dropped
objects are normally taken as
the operational hook loads in
cranes
The impact Energy due
to collision:
E = 1/2 (M+a)v
2
E: impact (collision)
energy (kJ)
M: displc. vessel (tonnes)
a: added mass of vessel,
normally assumed as 0.4
M for sideway collision
and 0.1 M for bow or
stern collision
v : impact speed (m/s)
Loads in the fabrication, tow-out &
installation phases
The occurrence of welding stresses &
possible extreme loads in the launching of
vessels must be recognized.
During the joining of large structural
components geometrical mismatch
additional stresses can be build into the
structure
Forces due to geometrical mismatch
During installation in the case of deck columns
stabbing into the jacket legs.
Loads in installation sequence
Tow-out:
In open ocean area no shelter + severe
environmental significant response in
some structural components.
Launching the jacket from a barge:
Severe load CG of the jacket passes
over the tilt beam (Fig. 3.7a)
Large axial loads must be carried by a few
bracing members lead to extra braces (Fig.
3.7b)
Loads in installation sequence
Loads in installation sequence
Up-righting ballasting the jacket ~ a
vertical orientation
Design conditions to be investigated:
Launching
Up-righting
Setting
Current loads on structures
In design of offshore structures current
time-invariant represented by the mean value
The current strength vary with water depth
Current varying pressure distribution around
a member steady drag force on the structure
in the direction of flow
Pressure distribution not symmetric about the
flow direction generate a transverse force on
the structural member.
Current drag & lift force
If a 2-D structure is
placed in a uniform flow:
f = current force
= fluid density
A = structure projected area
normal to the flow
U = uniform flow velocity
C
D
= a constant (drag coeff.)
C
D
a function of the Reynolds number (Re) Re = UD/ v
D = diameter of structure
v = kinematics viscosity
The drag coefficient
A smooth stationary circular cylinder
In uniform flow
Obtained through laboratory testing
Current loads on structures
Roughness of the structure surface:
Appendages attached to a structural component (e.g.
in ship & submarine)
Marine growth (e.g. in the floating buoys &
submerged cylindrical structural members)
The roughness is quantified by the value of the
roughness coefficient, e = KID; K = surface
roughness parameter.
API guideline a 1.5 in. growth on members
for depths from 0 to 150 ft below the surface.
Marine Growth
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged
members.
Its main effect is to increase the wave forces on the
members by increasing not only exposed areas and
volumes, but also the drag coefficient due to higher
surface roughness.
It increases the unit mass of the member, resulting in
higher gravity loads and in lower member frequencies.
Depending upon geographic location, the thickness of
marine growth can reach 0,3m or more.
It is accounted for in design through appropriate
increases in the diameters and masses of the
submerged members.

Marine Growth
The drag coefficients for a rough cylinder for a
roughness coefficient value of up to 0.02 are shown in
fig. 4.2 as a function of Re and the roughness
coefficient, K/D.
C
D
at high Reynolds number with
various roughness
In a recent experiment, the drag coefficients on a
cylinder were obtained at high Reynolds number with
various roughness, which is shown in fig. 4.3.
Marine Growth data

The Transverse (or Lift) force
Pressure distribution not symmetric about the flow
direction generate a transverse force (or Lift) on the
structural member.
This force is generated from the asymmetric pressure
distribution due to the uneven formation of the vortices
behind the member.
The force generated in the transverse direction is irregular.
This force is written in a form similar to the inline drag force
as:
This form of the lift force requires that the lift coefficient, C
L
in
the equation is time varying.
The Transverse (or Lift) force
Therefore, the lift coefficients are expressed either as rms
values over one measured cycle or maximum values
corresponding to the maximum lift force.
The two curves in the figure provides the upper and lower
ranges of experimental C
L
and its value in a particular case
can only be determined approximately.

Blockage factor in current
A practical structure is often
composed of relatively closely
spaced small members
connected in various
orientations.
The current blockage factor
to account for the presence of
the structure in the current flow
field enables one to compute
the true global load on the
structure.
The blockage factor is applied
to the undisturbed current (i.e.
steady flow) value in order to
obtain an equivalent current
velocity that accounts for the
blockage by the structure.
Taylor (1991):
The summation of the drag
forces is computed from each
member in the dense structure
including the horizontal
members in the flow,
is the perimeter area of the
projected structure normal to
the flow.


Current Blockage factor for
jacket platform
API (2000):
In practice, such as, a
group of drilling
conductors or risers of
a jacket-type structure
S is the centre to centre
distance of the
conductors of diameter D,
which includes any
marine growth on the
surface of the conductors