Ethernet

Ethernet

Ethernet
The term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN) products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard. Three data rates are currently defined for operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
10 Mbps10Base-T Ethernet 100 MbpsFast Ethernet 1000 MbpsGigabit Ethernet

10-Gigabit Ethernet is under development and will likely be published as the IEEE 802.3ae supplement to the IEEE 802.3 base standard in late 2001 or early 2002
Ethernet

Ethernet Basics
Topologies Linear bus, Star bus

Signaling
Access method Specifications Transfer speed Cable types

Mainly baseband (digital)

CSMA/CD IEEE 802.3 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or above Coaxial cables, UTP

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Ethernet Network Topologies and Structures

LANs take on many topological configurations, but regardless of their size or complexity, all will be a combination of only three basic interconnection structures or network building blocks
point-to-point interconnection coaxial bus structure, Segment lengths were limited to 500 meters, and up to 100 stations could be connected to a single segment star-connected topology, the central network unit is either a multiport repeater (also known as a hub) or a network switch
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Ethernet Network Topologies and Structures

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IEEE 802.3 to ISO

Ethernet's Logical Relationship to the ISO Reference Model

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IEEE 802.3 to ISO

The MAC-client sublayer may be one of the following:
Logical Link Control (LLC), if the unit is a DTE. This sublayer provides the interface between the Ethernet MAC and the upper layers in the protocol stack of the end station. The LLC sublayer is defined by IEEE 802.2 standards. Bridge entity, if the unit is a DCE. Bridge entities provide LAN-to-LAN interfaces between LANs that use the same protocol (for example, Ethernet to Ethernet) and also between different protocols (for example, Ethernet to Token Ring). Bridge entities are defined by IEEE 802.1 standards.
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IEEE 802.3 to ISO

MAC and Physical Layer Compatibility Requirements

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The Ethernet MAC Sublayer

The MAC sublayer has two primary responsibilities:
Data encapsulation, including frame assembly before transmission, and frame parsing/error detection during and after reception Media access control, including initiation of frame transmission and recovery from transmission failure
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Frame Format
PRE 7 SOF 1 DA 6 SA 6 Type 2 Data 1500 FCS 4

Ethernet Data Frame Format

PRE 7

SOF 1

DA 6

SA 6

Lngth 2

Data

FCS 4

IEEE 802.3 Data Frame Format

Ethernet

Frame Format
Preamble (PRE) Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros that tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that provides a means to synchronize the frame-reception portions of receiving physical layers with the incoming bit stream.

Start-of-frame delimiter (SOF) Consists of 1 byte. The SOF is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1-bits indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the left-most byte of the destination address.

Ethernet

Destination address (DA) Consists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies which station(s) should receive the frame. The left-most bit in the DA field indicates whether the address is an individual address (indicated by a 0) or a group address (indicated by a 1). The second bit from the left indicates whether the DA is globally administered (indicated by a 0) or locally administered (indicated by a 1). The remaining 46 bits are a uniquely assigned value that identifies a single station, a defined group of stations, or all stations on the network. Source addresses (SA) Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the sending station. The SA is always an individual address and the left-most bit in the SA field is always 0. Length/Type Consists of 2 bytes Indicates no. of bytes in the coming PDU. If length is fixed, the field can be used to indicate type, or as base for protocol.
Ethernet

Data Is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal to 1500. If the length of the Data field is less than 46, the Data field must be extended by adding a filler (a pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to 46 bytes. Frame check sequence (FCS) Consists of 4 bytes. This sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by the sending MAC and is recalculated by the receiving MAC to check for damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields.

Ethernet

Frame Transmission
Whenever an end station MAC receives a transmit-frame request with the accompanying address and data information from the LLC sublayer, the MAC begins the transmission sequence by transferring the LLC information into the MAC frame buffer.
The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and SOF fields. The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address fields. The LLC data bytes are counted, and the number of bytes is inserted into the Length/Type field. The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of LLC data bytes is less than 46, a pad is added to bring the Data field length up to 46. An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields and is appended to the end of the Data field.
Ethernet

Half-Duplex Transmission The CSMA/CD Access Method

Carrier senseEach station continuously listens for traffic on the medium to determine when gaps between frame transmissions occur. Multiple accessStations may begin transmitting any time they detect that the network is quiet (there is no traffic). Collision detectIf two or more stations in the same CSMA/CD network (collision domain) begin transmitting at approximately the same time, the bit streams from the transmitting stations will interfere (collide) with each other, and both transmissions will be unreadable. If that happens, each transmitting station must be capable of detecting that a collision has occurred before it has finished sending its frame. Each must stop transmitting as soon as it has detected the collision and then must wait a quasirandom length of time (determined by a back-off algorithm) before attempting to retransmit the frame.
Ethernet

10 Mbps IEEE Standards - 10BaseT

10BaseT 10 Mbps, baseband, over Twisted-pair cable Running Ethernet over twistedpair wiring as specified by IEEE 802.3 Configure in a star pattern
Ethernet

Unshielded twisted-pair

RJ-45 Plug and Socket

 Baseband Transmission
Entire channel is used to transmit a single digital signal Complete bandwidth of the cable is used by a single signal The transmission distance is shorter The electrical interference is lower

Broadband Transmission
Use analog signaling and a range of frequencies Continuous signals flow in the form of waves Support multiple analog transmission (channels)

Baseband Transmission

Network Card

Modem
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Broadband Transmission

 Twisted Pair Cables

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) most popular maximum length 100 m more susceptible to noise EIA/TIA 568 Commercial Building Wire Standard

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5 Category 6

Voice transmission of traditional telephone For data up to 4 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex For data up to 10 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex For data up to 16 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex For data up to 100 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex For data up to 1000 Mbps, 4 pairs full-duplex
Ethernet

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP) Shielding to reduce crosstalk Crosstalk: signal from one line getting mixed with signals from another line Connector RJ-45 computer connector (8 wires)

Pin
1
2 3 4 5

T568A
Rx+
RxTx+ Unused Unused

T568B
Tx+
TxRx+ Unused Unused

6
7 8

TxUnused Unused

RxUnused Unused
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Case 1 T568A Cross-over cable Case 2 T568B Case 3 Wall plate Cross-over cable T568B

T568B

Hub

Straight through cable Straight through cable

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A typical 10BaseT network

Backbone

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10BaseT Summary
Cable Connectors Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP RJ-45 at cable ends

Max. distance between computer to hub

Backbones for hubs

100 m. (328)
Coaxial or fibre-optic

Total computers per LAN

1024

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Pros and Cons of 10BaseT

Advantages Easier to manage Scalable Cable itself is relatively inexpensive

Drawback
High attenuation leads to short segment length

Need good infrastructure planning beforehand

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10 Mbps IEEE Standards - 10Base2

Called 10Base2 because it carries signal roughly 2 times 100 m (actually 185 m) Use thin coaxial cable, thinnet Configure in a linear bus pattern
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 Both end of a segment needed to be terminated to avoid energy bounce back

Can introduce collision if without termination

To reduce interference, can ground the terminator Never ground both ends as there can be voltage difference in both ends
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A typical 10Base2 network

Follow 5-4-3 rule

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10Base2 Summary
Max. segment length T joints Connectors to NIC BNC T connector 185 m (607) Minimum distance between 0.5 m (1.5)

Cable
Follow 5-4-3 rule Max. total network length Computers per segment
Ethernet

Coaxial, e.g. RG-58

925 m (3035) 30

Pros and Cons of 10Base2

Advantages
Easy to install Easy to configure Drawback Difficult to maintain Cable itself is expensive
Ethernet Not extendable to 100 based systems

100 Mbps Networks

Multimedia network applications push the development of faster networks

Several Ethernet standards exist:

100BaseVG-AnyLAN Ethernet 100BaseX Ethernet (Fast Ethernet) 10 times faster than 10BaseX systems Compatible with existing cabling systems
Ethernet

100VG-AnyLAN
Originally developed by Hewlett-Packard Currently being refined and ratified by IEEE 802.12 committee Specifications:
Minimum data rate 100 Mbps

Support a cascaded star topology over cat.3, 4, and 5 twisted-pair and fiber-optic cables
Use demand priority access method Support for both Ethernet frames and Token Ring packets
Ethernet

Star bus Topology

Max distance from hub to computer: 250 m

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Demand priority access method

Hub continuously scans in a round-robin way for requests from computer Each node has two priorities High: for multimedia data Low: for normal data
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 If both high and low priority packets are pending to transfer, send high priority first Resume to serve low priority packets if all high priority packets have been served

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100BaseX Ethernet
Also called Fast Ethernet
Specified by IEEE 802.3 addendum

Extension to the existing Ethernet standard

Run on UTP Cat.5 cable and use CSMA/CD in a star wired bus Can be easily plug-and-play over the existing systems Ethernet

Value

Represent

Actual Meaning

100
Base T4 TX FX

Transmission speed
Signal type Cable type Cable type Cable type

100 Mbps
Baseband 4 telephone-grade twisted -pair cable (cat. 3,4,5) 2 data-grade twisted-pair cable (cat. 5) Fiber-optic link using 2 Ethernet strands of fiber cable

Comparison with 10BaseT

Transmit on 3 pairs vs. 1 pair x 3.00

8B6T coding instead of Manchester x 2.65

20 to 25 MHz clock increase x 1.25

10.00

Ethernet

Wireless Local Area Networks

Ethernet

 The proliferation of laptop computers and other mobile devices (PDAs and cell phones) created an obvious application level demand for wireless local area networking. Companies jumped in, quickly developing incompatible wireless products in the 1990s. Industry decided to entrust standardization to IEEE committee that dealt with wired LANS namely, the IEEE 802 committee!!
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Wireless Local Area Networks

IEEE 802 Standards Working Groups

Figure 1-38. The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with are hibernating. The one marked with gave up.
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Categories of Wireless Networks Base Station :: all communication through

an access point {note hub topology}. Other nodes can be fixed or mobile. Infrastructure Wireless :: base station network is connected to the wired Internet. Ad hoc Wireless :: wireless nodes communicate directly with one another. MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) :: ad hoc nodes are mobile.
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Wireless LANs

Figure 1-36.(a) Wireless networking with a base station. (b) Ad hoc networking.

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LAN Technologies

802.11 Wireless LAN

Desktop with PCI 802.11 LAN card

Network connectivity to the legacy wired LAN

Access Point

Laptop with PCMCIA 802.11 LAN card

Provides network connectivity over wireless media An Access Point (AP) is installed to act as Bridge between Wireless and Wired Network The AP is connected to wired network and is equipped with antennae to provide wireless connectivity
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The 802.11 Protocol Stack

Figure 4-25. Part of the 802.11 protocol stack.

Note ordinary 802.11 products are no longer being manufactured.
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Wireless Physical Layer

Physical layer conforms to OSI (five options)
1997: 802.11 infrared, FHSS, DHSS 1999: 802.11a OFDM and 802.11b HR-DSSS 2001: 802.11g OFDM

802.11 Infrared
Two capacities 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps. Range is 10 to 20 meters and cannot penetrate walls. Does not work outdoors.

802.11 FHSS (Frequence Hopping Spread Spectrum)

The main issue is multipath fading. 79 non-overlapping channels, each 1 Mhz wide at low end of 2.4 GHz ISM band. Same pseudo-random number generator used by all stations. Dwell time: min. time on channel before hopping (400msec).

Ethernet

Wireless Physical Layer

802.11 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
Spreads signal over entire spectrum using pseudo-random sequence (similar to CDMA see Tanenbaum sec. 2.6.2). Each bit transmitted using an 11 chips Barker sequence, PSK at 1Mbaud. 1 or 2 Mbps.

802.11a OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Divisional Multiplexing)

Compatible with European HiperLan2. 54Mbps in wider 5.5 GHz band transmission range is limited. Uses 52 FDM channels (48 for data; 4 for synchronization). Encoding is complex ( PSM up to 18 Mbps and QAM above this capacity). E.g., at 54Mbps 216 data bits encoded into into 288-bit symbols. More difficulty penetrating walls.
Ethernet

Wireless Physical Layer

802.11b HR-DSSS (High Rate Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
11a and 11b shows a split in the standards committee. 11b approved and hit the market before 11a. Up to 11 Mbps in 2.4 GHz band using 11 million chips/sec. Note in this bandwidth all these protocols have to deal with interference from microwave ovens, cordless phones and garage door openers. Range is 7 times greater than 11a. 11b and 11a are incompatible!!

Ethernet

Wireless Physical Layer

802.11g OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
An attempt to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. Supports bandwidths up to 54 Mbps. Uses 2.4 GHz frequency for greater range. Is backward compatible with 802.11b.

Ethernet

 In 802.11 wireless LANs, seizing channel does not exist as in 802.3 wired Ethernet. Two additional problems:
Hidden Terminal Problem Exposed Station Problem

802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol

To deal with these two problems 802.11 supports two modes of operation DCF (Distributed Coordination Function) and PCF (Point Coordination Function). All implementations must support DCF, but PCF is optional.
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Figure 4-26.(a)The hidden station problem. (b) The exposed station problem.

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The Hidden Terminal Problem

Wireless stations have transmission ranges and not all stations are within radio range of each other. Simple CSMA will not work! C transmits to B. If A senses the channel, it will not hear Cs transmission and falsely conclude that A can begin a transmission to B.
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The Exposed Station Problem

This is the inverse problem. B wants to send to C and listens to the channel. When B hears As transmission, B falsely assumes that it cannot send to C.

Ethernet

Distribute Coordination Function (DCF)

Uses CSMA/ CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance).

Uses both physical and virtual carrier sensing. Two methods are supported:

1. based on MACAW(Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless) with virtual carrier sensing. 2. 1-persistent physical carrier sensing.
Ethernet

Wireless LAN Protocols

MACA protocol solved hidden, exposed terminal:
Send Ready-to-Send (RTS) and Clear-to-Send (CTS) first RTS, CTS helps determine who else is in range or busy (Collision avoidance). Can a collision still occur?

Professor Agus slide

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Wireless LAN Protocols

MACAW added ACKs and CSMA (no RTS at same time)

(a) A sending an RTS to B.(b) B responding with a CTS to A.

Professor Agus slide
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Virtual Channel Sensing in CSMA/CA

Figure 4-27. The use of virtual channel sensing using CSMA/CA. C (in range of A) receives the RTS and based on information in RTS creates a virtual channel busy NAV(Network Allocation Vector). D (in range of B) receives the CTS and creates a shorter NAV.
Ethernet

Virtual Channel Sensing in CSMA/CA

What is the advantage of RTS/CTS? RTS is 20 bytes, and CTS is 14 bytes. MPDU can be 2300 bytes. virtual implies source station sets duration field in data frame or in RTS and CTS frames. Stations then adjust their NAV accordingly!

Ethernet

Figure 4-28.Fragmentation in 802.11

High wireless error rates long packets have less probability of being successfully transmitted. Solution: MAC layer fragmentation with stopand-wait protocol onEthernet fragments. the

1-Persistent Physical Carrier Sensing

Station senses the channel when it wants to send. If idle, station transmits.
Station does not sense channel while transmitting.

If the channel is busy, station defers until idle and then transmits. Upon collision, wait a random time using binary exponential backoff.
Ethernet

Point Coordinated Function (PCF)

PCF uses a base station to poll other stations to see if they have frames to send. No collisions occur. Base station sends beacon frame periodically. Base station can tell another station to sleep to save on batteries and base stations holds frames for sleeping station. Ethernet

DCF and PCF Co-Existence

Distributed and centralized control can co-exist using InterFrame Spacing. SIFS (Short IFS) :: is the time waited between packets in an ongoing dialog (RTS,CTS,data, ACK, next frame) PIFS (PCF IFS) :: when no SIFS response, base station can issue beacon or poll. DIFS (DCF IFS) :: when no PIFS, any station can attempt to acquire the channel. EIFS (Extended IFS) :: lowest priority interval used to report bad or unknown frame.
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Figure 4-29. Interframe Spacing in 802.11.

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Gigabit Ethernet (1000 BASE X)

Provides speeds of 1000 Mbps (i.e., one billion bits per second capacity) for half-duplex and full-duplex operation. Uses Ethernet frame format and MAC technology
CSMA/CD access method with support for one repeater per collision domain. Backward compatible with 10 BASE-T and 100 BASE-T.

Uses 802.3 full-duplex Ethernet technology. Uses 802.3x flow control. All Gigabit Ethernet configurations are point-to-point!
Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet Architecture Standard

Media Access Control (MAC) full duplex and/or half duplex Gigabit Media Independent Interface (GMII) (optional)
1000 Base X PHY 8B/10B auto-negotiation 1000 Base-LX 1000 Base-SX 1000 Base-CX
Fiber optic transceiver Single Mode or Multimode Fiber Fiber optic transceiver Multimode Fiber Copper transceiver Shieled Copper Cable

1000 Base T PCS 1000 Base T PMA transceiver

Unshielded twisted pair

IEEE 802.3ab

IEEE 802.3z
Ethernet

Source - IEEE

Gigabit Ethernet Technology

Figure 4-23.Gigabit Ethernet cabling.

1000 BASE SX fiber - short wavelength 1000 BASE LX fiber - long wavelength 1000 BASE CX copper - shielded twisted pair 1000 BASE T copper - unshielded twisted pair * Based on Fiber Channel physical signaling technology.

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Gigabit Ethernet (1000 BASE-T)

LLC
MAC

Data Link Layer

GMII

Gigabit Media Independent Interface Physical Layer Media Dependent Interface Medium

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Gigabit Media Independent Interface (GMII)

Allows any physical layer to be used with a given MAC. Namely, Fiber Channel physical layer can be used with CSMA/CD. Permits both full-duplex and half-duplex.

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END
Ethernet