Optical sources

Muhammad Jawad

Lecture 3
Optical Sources

Optical Sources
Light Production . Spontaneous Emission Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) The Semiconductor Junction Diode Construction and Operation of LEDs Heterojunctions (Practical LEDs) Characteristics of LEDs

Light Production
Taking the most general view, there is only one way that light can be produced: that is, through the rapid change of state of an electron from a state of relatively high energy to a (more stable) state of lower energy. When this happens the energy has to go somewhere and it is often emitted in the form of light.

Light Emissions
Spontaneous emission is really the normal case. When an electron is elevated to a high energy state this state is usually unstable and the electron will spontaneously return to a more stable state very quickly (within a few picoseconds) emitting a photon as it does so. When light is emitted spontaneously its direction and phase will be random but the wavelength will be determined by the amount of energy that the emitting electron must give up. Stimulated emission is what happens in the operation of a laser. In some situations when an electron enters a high energy (excited) state it is able to stay there for a relatively long time (a few microseconds) before it changes state spontaneously. When an electron is in this semi-stable (meta stable) high energy state it can be stimulated by the presence of a photon of light to emit its energy in the form of another photon. In this case the incident photon must have the right energy (wavelength) within quite small limits.

Energy sources
Heat One of the most common ways of providing energy to boost an electron into a higher energy state is to apply heat. Of course, most times the electron immediately gives off its energy in the form of a photon and returns to a lower energy state. This is the principle of ordinary incandescent light. Electrical Discharge When an electric current is passed through a gas (such as neon), energy from the current ionises (breaks the chemical bonds in) the gas. Thisprocess injects energy into electrons within the gas and when these electrons are reclaimed into molecules energy is given off in the form of light. (This is often called fluorescent light.) Electric Current This is different from electrical discharge. This is the principle involved in semiconductor lasers and LEDs. An electric current applied to a semiconductor p-n junction requires that electrons and holes recombine atthe junction. This recombination results in electrons going from the high energy conduction band to the lower more stable valence band. This can result in either spontaneous emission or lasing depending on how the device is constructed.

Energy sources
Chemical Reaction There are many chemical reactions which result in the emission of light. This is not always through a heating effect. During a chemical reaction atoms and molecules are restructured. Often as a result of the restructuring process electrons are left in high energy (unstable) states. This excess energy is often given off in the form of heat but it can also be given off in the form of light. Biological Reactions (Bio luminescense) Biological reactions are just chemical reactions taking place within living organisms. However, it helps to mention them separately as they appear to be quite different. Absorption of Light Many substances will absorb light of one particular wavelength, move to a higher (excited) energy state and then (either spontaneously or through stimulation) give off light at a different wavelength. Nuclear Radiation There are three types of nuclear radiation and each can deliver energy to a substance and cause spontaneous emission.

Spontaneous Emission
We use different terms to describe spontaneously emitted light depending on how the energy was supplied: Incandescent light is any light produced as a result of heating the material. Fluorescent light is light produced by spontaneous emission from an energy source that is not heat. The term fluorescence is used if the emission stops when the external source of energy is removed (or very soon after). Phosphorescent light is also produced from an energy source that is not heat but where the emission continues for some time after the external source of energy is removed.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Almost all light sources used in communications today are made from semiconductors. Light Emitting Diodes are simpler than lasers but have a lot in common with them. Therefore LEDs are discussed first. The Semiconductor Junction Diode Figure shows a p-n junction with an electrical potential applied across it. When the field is applied in one direction the device conducts electricity (called the forward direction), but when the field is applied in the opposite direction (the reverse direction) no current can flow.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Forward Bias When we connect an electrical potential across the junction with the negative pole connected to the n-type material and the positive pole connected to the p-type material then the junction conducts. As soon as they cross (or perhaps a bit before) most holes and electrons will re-combine and eliminate each other. When this happens the free electrons must lose a quantum of energy to fill the available hole. This quantum of energy is radiated as electromagnetic energy with the wavelength depending on the size of the energy gap that the free electron crosses when it fills the hole. This phenomenon is called Injection Luminescence.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Reverse Bias When a voltage is applied in the reverse direction no current flows at all. A negative charge is applied to the contact on the p-type side and a positive charge is applied to the contact on the n-type side. In this case the contacts both attract the mobile charges. On the n-type side the mobile electrons are attracted to the positive contact and on the p-type side holes are attracted to the negative charge on the contact. Thus the depletion zone enlarges and there is no conduction. If you expose the reverse-biased p-n junction to light the light is absorbed and causes ionisation - the creation of a free hole and electron pair. This then creates a current and you have built a light detector.

Construction and Operation of LEDs

Construction and Operation of LEDs

Construction and Operation of LEDs

Construction and Operation of LEDs

Transitions can take place from any energy state in either band to any state in the other band. This is illustrated by the double arrows. When we use injected carriers (as in a junction diode) the predominant transition is from the conduction band down to the (lower energy state) valence band. Of course the action of heat (or for that matter the absorption of a stray photon of light) can cause electrons to go the other way - from the valence band to the conduction band.

Because of the range of states possible in both bands there is a range of different energy transitions possible. This results in a range of different wavelengths produced in this spontaneous emission. This accounts for the fact that LEDs produce a range of wavelengths. Typically the range is about 80 nm or so. Later, we will see that this also results in lasers producing a range of possible wavelengths.

Indirect Bandgap Materials

Heterojunctions (Practical LEDs)

Heterojunctions (Practical LEDs)

Double-Heterojunction

Coupling into OF

Coupling into OF

Characteristics of LEDs
Low Cost LEDs have been very low in cost compared to communication lasers. This is highly controversial. Communication LEDs and lasers are not too different in their structures and are comparable in manufacturing cost. Connecting to single mode fibre (pigtailing) is significantly more costly than connecting to multimode fibre and since lasers are commonly used with single mode and LEDs with multimode there is a cost difference here. Low Power The maximum light output of an LED has typically been a lot lower than that of a laser (about 100 microwatts). However, recently a new class of LEDs, with output of up to 75 milliwatts, has become available. Relatively Wide Spectrum Produced LEDs do not produce a single light wavelength but rather a band of wavelengths. The range (or band) of wavelengths produced is called the spectral width and is typically about .05 of the wavelength (50 to 100 nm). The spectral width can be reduced (and dispersion reduced) by using selective filters to produce a narrow band of wavelengths. However, this reduces the power of the signal too.

Characteristics of LEDs
Incoherent Light The light produced is neither directional nor coherent. This means that you need a lens to focus the light onto the end of a fibre. LEDs are not suitable for use with single-mode fibre for this reason (it is too hard to get the light into the narrow core). Digital Modulation LEDs cannot produce pulses short enough to be used at gigabit speeds. However, systems using LEDs operate quite well at speeds of up to around 300 Mbps. Digital modulation is straightforward. The device turns on when the forward voltage applied results in a potential across the junction greater than the bandgap energy required. It extinguishes when the voltage drops below that. Analogue Modulation LEDs can also be analogue modulated quite simply by maintaining a forward bias just larger than the bandgap energy (since the device response is linear with current flow). This is one advantage over lasers. While lasers can be analogue modulated and are indeed used this way in some commercial situations, this is not an easy thing to do.

Part 2

LASER

LASER
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Lasers produce far and away the best kind of light for optical communication.

LASER Advantages
Ideal laser light is single-wavelength only. This is related to the molecular characteristics of the material being used in the laser. It is formed in parallel beams and is in a single phase. That is, it is coherent. Lasers can be modulated (controlled) very precisely (the record is a pulse length of 0.5 femto seconds). Lasers can produce relatively high power. Indeed some types of laser can produce kilowatts of power. In communication applications, semiconductor lasers of power up to about 20 milliwatts are available. This is many times greater power than LEDs can generate. Other semiconductor lasers (such as those used in pumps for optical amplifiers) have outputs of up to 250 milliwatts. Because laser light is produced in parallel beams, a high percentage (50% to80%) can be transferred into the fibre.

LASER Disadvantages
Lasers have been quite expensive by comparison with LEDs. (Recent development has helped this a lot.) One of the things that causes lasers to have a high cost is that for lasers used in long distance applications temperature control and output power control is needed. Temperature control maintains a stable lasing threshold and power control ensures that the detector can see a stable signal. Both of these require added cost. A peltier effect cooler/heater is normally used to keep the temperature stable. This also requires a thermistor to measure the device temperature. To control power a p-n diode detector is usually packaged with the laser to measure the power being produced and (via a feedback loop) control the laser's bias current. Both of these require electronic logic to operate. The wavelength that a laser produces is a characteristic of the material used to build it and of its physical construction. You can't just say I want a laser on x wavelength, or rather you can say it all you like - you just can't have it. Lasers have to be individually designed for each wavelength they are going to use. Tunable lasers exist and are beginning to become commercially available but the available tuning range is quite narrow and tuning is quite slow. Amplitude modulation using an analogue signal is difficult with most lasers because laser output signal power is generally non-linear with input signal power. That is, the variations in the light produced do not match the amplitude variations of the source signal. However recent developments in laser design have made analogue modulation (with special lasers) a practical technology

Principle of LASER

Principle of LASER

Population Inversion

Need For Population Inversion

Fabry-Perot LASER

Fabry-Perot LASER

Fabry-Perot LASER

Operation of FP LASER

Turn on delay
There is an inevitable delay between the time electrical power is applied and when the laser starts to produce coherent light. This is caused by the need to build up the carrier concentration in the cavity to the point of population inversion Below Lasing Threshold As the power applied to the device increases there is some fluorescence but lasing does not occur until the lasing threshold is reached. This is the power level where the amount of power applied just overcomes losses within the device. It is also the point at which a population inversion is achieved. Just Above Threshold Just above the threshold lasing gets stronger and (in good index-guided devices) there are only a few strong lines present.

Operation of FP LASER
Operational Region (Full Power) When power is further increased lasing begins to dominate emissions (spontaneous emission is almost eliminated). At this time a small number (in good quality index-guided lasers only one) of the lasing modes will dominate the lasing operation. Typically this will be the strongest mode. So the spectral width of the light produced will narrow substantially.

Construction of a Fabry-Perot Laser

The active layer is very thin and the refractive index difference between the material of the active layer and the surrounding material is not great. Thus you don't get lasing in the vertical (transverse) mode. You can get lasing in the lateral mode but this is minimized by either coating the sides with an anti-reflection material or just making sure the sides are rough (cut rather than cleaved).

Gain Guided

Gain Guided

Index Guided

Distributed Feedback (DFB) Lasers

1. As seen above FP lasers produce many wavelengths over a spectral width of between 5 and 8 nm. Even if we are using the 1310 zero dispersion band or dispersion shifted fibre in the 1550 nm band there will still be some chromatic dispersion of the signal caused by dispersion being slightly different at the different wavelengths. 2. In Wavelength Division Multiplexed (WDM) systems we want to carry many multiplexed optical signals on the same fibre. To do this it is important for each signal to have as narrow a spectral width as possible and to be as stable as possible. Regular FP lasers have too great a spectral width for use in this application. Distributed FeedBack (DFB) lasers are one answer to this problem. The idea is that you put a Bragg grating into the laser cavity of an index-guided FP laser.

Distributed Feedback (DFB) Lasers

This is just a periodic variation in the RI of the gain region along its length. The presence of the grating causes small reflections to occur at each RI change (corrugation). When the period of the corrugations is a multiple of the wavelength of the incident light, constructive interference between reflections occurs and a proportion of the light is reflected. Other wavelengths destructively interfere and therefore cannot be reflected. The effect is strongest when the period of the Bragg grating is equal to the wavelength of light used (first order grating). However, the device will work when the grating period is any (small) integer multiple of the wavelength. Thus only one mode (the one that conforms to the wavelength of the grating) can lase.

Distributed Feedback (DFB) Lasers

Chirp

Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) Lasers

Sampled-Grating Tunable DBR Lasers

Sampled-Grating Tunable DBR Lasers

External Cavity DBR Lasers

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

VCSELs (also called microlasers) have been around in various forms since the late 1970's. However in 1991 there was a major development in construction techniques reported and in 1996 the first commercial devices became available It seems almost too obvious but when you build a laser you can't just arbitrarily decide on its structure. You are severely limited by material characteristics and available manufacturing technology. In previous sections we have discussed edge emitting lasers where you start with a flat substrate and use the techniques of chip manufacture to build a very thin, flat device that nevertheless has a relatively large area. VCSELs are different. Instead of emitting from the edge they emit from the surface. They are constructed by laying down a very large number (perhaps 500) of relatively thin layers of semiconductor material. The device emits light vertically through the stack of material layers. This is shown in Figure . As in any laser the overall structure is one of two end mirrors on each side of an active region which produces the light.

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)