SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

THE CHEMICAL AND BODY SENSE: SMELL, TASTE, TOUCH, AND POSITION

 Chemical stimuli produce the sensations of smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation), while pressure and other stimuli are involved in touch, pain, position, and balance sensations

HOW WE SMELL
The sensory stimuli that produce our sensation of an odor are molecules in the air. The molecules encounter millions of olfactory receptor cells located high in the nasal cavity, which are constantly being replaced. Odor receptors are present on hair like fibers of the olfactory neurons.

HOW WE SMELL
Each odor receptor seems to be specialized to respond to molecules of a different chemical structure. When these receptor cells are stimulated, a neural message is created, which travels along their axons, bundles of which make up the olfactory nerves. The brain identifies odors by interpreting the pattern of receptors that are stimulated.

HOW WE SMELL
The olfactory nerves directly connect to the olfactory bulb in the brain, which is actually the enlarged end of the olfactory cortex at the front of the brain. Axons from the olfactory bulb form the olfactory tract, which projects to different brain areas, including the temporal lobes and structures in the limbic system. Olfactory neurons are also the only neurons that directly link the brain and the outside world.

HOW WE SMELL
Human sensitivity to odors varies
Women have a better sense of smell than men Olfactory function declines with age Loss of olfactory function is also associated with exposure to pollution, smoking, some chemicals, and several diseases.

HOW WE SMELL
Sensory adaptation to odors generally occurs in less than one minute

HOW WE SMELL
Pheromones
Chemical signals that affect the behavior of other animals of the same species. The search for human chemosignals has narrowed to chemicals found in steroid compounds that occur in swear, armpit hair, blood, and semen.
Rather than affecting behavior, these chemosignals may be social signals, affecting how people react and work together in groups.

TASTE
Our sense of taste, or gustation, results from the stimulation of special receptors in the mouth called taste buds Taste buds are located on the tongue, on the insides of the cheeks, on the roof of the mouth, and in the throat Each taste bud contains about 50 receptor cells

TASTE
When activated, the receptor cells in the taste buds send neural messages along neural pathways to the thalamus in the brain, which, in turn, directs the information to several regions in the cortex

TASTE
5 basic taste categories
Sweet Salty Sour Bitter Umami
Combine to form all other tastes

Each taste bud shows maximum sensitivity to one particular taste quality and lesser degrees of sensitivity to other tastes.

TASTE
Taste in one aspect of flavor, which also involves the aroma, temperature, texture, and appearance of food Starburst activity

THE SKIN AND BODY SENSES

The skin sense provide essential information about our physical status and our physical interaction with objects in the environment. The body senses keep us informed as to our position and orientation in space

TOUCH
The skin is the largest (covers about 20 square feet of surface area) and heaviest (weighs about 6 pounds) sense organ. Located beneath the skin, the Pacinian corpuscle is an important receptor involved in the sense of touch. When stimulated by pressure, it converts the stimulation into a neural message that is relayed in the brain

TOUCH
Sensory receptors are distributed unevenly among different areas of the body. Sensitivity to touch and temperature sensations varies because some areas, such as the hands, face, and lips, are much more densely packed with sensory receptors than are other areas.

PAIN
Pain is the sensation of discomfort or suffering that can occur in varying degrees of intensity Nociceptors are the bodys pain receptors; they are actually small sensory fibers called free nerve endings in the skin, muscles, or internal organs. They transmit their messages to the spinal cord.

PAIN
Fast and slow pain systems
The myelinated A-delta fibers transmit the sharp, intense, but short-lived pain of the immediate injury The smaller, unmyelinated C fivers transmit the longer-lasting pain of injury Most fibers produce substance P, a pain enhancer that stimulates free nerve endings at the injury site and increases the pain messages within the spinal cord

PAIN
Fast and slow pain systems (cont)
Fast pain messages travel to the thalamus, then the somatosensory cortex Slow pain messages go to the hypothalamus and thalamus, then the limbic system structures, such as the amygdala

PAIN
Gate-Control Theory
Controlled by a series of spinal gates that open and close
Depending on how the brain interprets the pain experience, it regulates pain by sending signals down the spinal cord that either open or close the gates. If, because of psychological factors, the brain signals the gates to open, pain is experienced or intensified; if the brain signals the gates to close, the pain is reduced.

PAIN
Gate-Control Theory (cont.)
Psychological factors also influence the release of endorphins and enkephalins, the bodys natural pain killers. In the brain, they can inhibit the transmission of pain signals. In the spinal cord, they inhibit the release of substance P. A persons mental or emotional state can influence other bodily processes. Muscle tension, psychological arousal, and rapid heart rate can all produce or intensify pain.

PAIN
Sometimes pain continues even after the injury is healed. During the process of sensitization, pain pathways become increasingly more responsive over time. Eventually, pain occurs in the absence of any sensory input. Such sensitization can result in chronic pain.

MOVEMENT, POSITION, AND BALANCE

The kinesthetic sense involves the location and position of body parts in relation to one another. Specialized sensory neurons, called proprioceptors, are located in the muscles and joints; these constantly communicate information to the brain about changes in body position and muscle tension.

MOVEMENT, POSITION, AND BALANCE

The vestibular sense provides a sense of balance, or equilibrium, by responding to changes in gravity, motion, and body position
Vestibular sensory info comes from the ears semicircular canals and vestibular sacs. These fluid filled structures are linked with hair like receptor cells that shift in response to motion, changes in body potion, or changes in gravity.

MOVEMENT, POSITION, AND BALANCE

(Cont.) Maintaining our equilibrium also involves info from other senses, particularly vision. When info from the eye conflicts with info from the vestibular system, the result can be dizziness, disorientation, and nausea.