TISSUES

TISSUE is a group of similarly specialized cells performing a common function

FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE 3. MUSCULAR TISSUE

4. NERVOUS TISSUE
They are interwoven to form the fabric of the body.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
is the covering/lining (skin, cavities of the GI and respiratory tracts, lining of BV), and glandular (different glands of the body) tissue of the body made up of closely arranged cells forming sheets with one end free (apical surface) and other end attached to a basement membrane very scanty intercellular substance

 apical surfaces of some epithelia may be smooth, others may have some modifications like the presence of cilia, sterocilia or microvilli
avascular nourished by diffusion from the capillaries of underlying connective tissues

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

1. Protection 2. Absorption 3. Filtration 4. Excretion 5. Secretion 6. Sensory reception

Types of Epithelial Tissue A. Covering and Lining Epithelium - forms the outer covering of the skin - forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities and interior of respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems

- classified according to 1. number of cell layers 2. shape of the cell on free surface B. Glandular Epithelium - constitutes the secreting portion of glands ex. sweat glands

gastric glands

Types Of Epithelium
COVERING AND LINING EPITHELIUM I. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM A. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS (e.g. ENDOTHELIUM (lines the
heart,blood vessels and lymphatic vessels), MESOTHELIUM (forms serous membranes of peritoneum, pleura, and pericardium), Bowmans capsule of

kidney)
B. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL- THYROID,KIDNEY TUBULES C. SIMPLE COLUMNAR- STOMACH, GALL BLADDER small and large intestines, uterine cervix PSEUDOSTRATIFIED CILIATED COLUMNAR respiratory system- trachea, bronchi, larynx, nasopharynx

II. STRATIFIED
A. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS- found in areas that are often subjected to abuse or friction
KERATINIZED (lines the skin) AND NONKERATINIZED (lines the mouth, esophagus, vagina) B. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL and C. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR- rare types and are found only in the ducts of large glands

D.TRANSITIONAL- cells change in shape depending on whether the organ is distended or contracted; cells on the surface tend to be umbrella-shaped or dome-like when the organ is not stretched and become large squamous when the organ is stretched
- lines the bladder, ureter, and renal pelvis

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified squamous epithelium

Transitional Epithelium

Glandular Epithelia

Gland is one or more cells specialized to manufacture and secrete particular products like hormones, mucus, perspiration, oil, earwax, milk, saliva, and digestive enzymes Classification 1. Based on route of secretion and type of product A. Exocrine B. Endocrine 2. Based on structure A. Unicellular B. Multicellular

Classification of Multicellular Glands

1. According to duct structure A. Simple single unbranched duct B. Compound branched duct 2. According to structure of secretory parts A. Tubular B. Alveolar C. Tubuloalveolar

3. According to function
1. Merocrine - releases its product with no part of the gland lost or damaged ex. certain sweat glands 2. holocrine - accompanied by cell death ex. sebaceous glands

3. Apocrine - involves loss of some protoplasm only ex. mammary gland

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
most abundant found common to all connective tissues are cells, matrix or gound substance, and intercellular fibers If the functions are mechanical, the extracellular fibers and ground substance are the major features e.g. ligaments, tendons, cartilage, and bone If the specialized functions are protective or maintenance of energy reserves, the cells are the major features made up of few cells separated by great amount of intercellular substance most are very vascular, however, tendons and ligaments have poor blood supply while cartilages are avascular

Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Enclosing and separating 2. Connecting tissues together 3. Supporting and moving 4. Storing 5. Cushioning and insulating 6. Transporting 7. Protecting

Main Types of Connective Tissues

A. Embryonic Connective Tissues
1. Mesenchymal Connective Tissue 2. Mucous Connective Tissue

B. Connective Tissue Proper

1. Loose/ Areolar Connective Tissue 2. Adipose Connective Tissue 3. Reticular Connective Tissue 4. Dense Connective Tissue a. Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue b. Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue c. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue 5. Lymphoid/ Adenoid Connective Tissue a. Loose/ Difuse b. Dense/ Compact

C. Specialized Connective Tissues

1. Cartilage 2. Bone/Osseous Tissue 3. Blood/Vascular Tissue

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. AREOLAR CT - most abundant - functions as a universal packing material and acts as a connective tissue glue that binds organs together and keep them in their proper position - contains several kinds of cells and all 3 types of connective tissue fibers - contains innumerable spaces called areola that provide reservoir of water and salts for the surrounding tissues

2. Reticular CT
- predominantly composed of reticular fibers which are synthesized by reticular cells - forms the stroma in lymphoid organs like the spleen and lymph nodes

3. Adipose CT - forms the hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin

where it serves as an insulator, protecting the body from extreme heat and cold - contains large fat cells that are closely packed into fat lobules separated by trabeculae

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES

1. Dense Regular CT
made up of an extracellular matrix that is packed with collagenous fibers that are compactly arranged in an organized manner forms a strong, rope-like structures that resist tensile forces

2. Dense Irregular CT
consists of densely packed collagenous fibers that are arranged in a disorderly manner found in body areas where pulling forces are exerted in different directions like the dermis of the skin

CARTILAGE
Features: 1. dense, firm, but pliable
2. with cells (chondrocytes), fibers (collagenous,and elastic), and ground substance (chondromucoprotein); * Collagenous fibers are responsible for its tensile strength * Chondrocytes are lodged in cavities called lacunae; cartilage capsule encloses each cell and forms its outer wall. 3. some enveloped by a fibrous tissue sheath called perichondrium 4. avascular

1. Hyaline Cartilage
Is the predominant cartilage in the body Is the precursor of most bones Has a glassy and homogenous appearnce Predominating fibers are collagenous fibers which are not visible in stained preparations because the fibers and the matrix have the same refractive index Chondrocytes may appear singly or in isogenous groups of cells called cell nests surrounded by a perichondrium

2. Elastic Cartilage - Is composed of a thread-like network support of elastic

fibers embedded within the matrix - Is surrounded by a perichondrium - Provides strength and elasticity and maintains the shape of structures - Is found in areas where elasticity is desired like the external ear, auditory tubes, epiglottis

3. Fibrocartilage
- Is the only cartilage without a perichondrium - The collagenous bundles are densely packed and arranged in a herring bone pattern; chondrocytes are aligned in rows between the bundles of collagenous fibers - Is the strongest type of cartilage hence,provides strength and rigidity - Found in the pubic symphysis and forms a cushion-like disk in between the vertebrae

Hyaline Cartilage

Elastic Cartilage

Fibrocartilage

BONE OR OSSEOUS TISSUE

Functions: 1. supports soft tissues 2. provides attachment for muscles and tendons 3. protects vital organs 4. hematopoiesis 5. stores minerals -is the hardest; matrix is calcified its spaces have been impregnated with calcium salts -is composed of living organic components that account for its tenacity, elasticity, resilience and non- living inorganic components for its hardness and rigidity

types of bone tissue 1. spongy/ cancellouscontains large spaces and in which the extracellular matrix is arranged as little (compact bone beams called tissue) trabeculae 2. Compactappears as a solid continuous mass

diaphysi s

bone marrow cavity

structural units are called Haversian Systems or osteons

(spongy bone tissue)

epiphys is

All bones are covered with a modified fibrous CT called periosteum. Endosteum lines the bone marrow cavity.

Osteon or Haversian System (basic unit of compact bone)

1. concentric lamellae - concentric rings of matrix

*types of lamellae periosteal lamellae- at the periphery of bone endosteal lamellae- in the innermost aspect of bone interstitial lamellae- fill the spaces between the Haversian systems concentric lamellae- within the Haversian system
2. lacunae - small spaces between lamellae that contain the mature bone cells

3. canaliculi - network of minute canals that extend from the H canal to the lacunae and from one lacuna to another - for the exchange of metabolic wastes

c/s of a compact bone

4. central (Haversian) canal - run parallel to the bone axis, and communicate with the external surface of the bone and with the bone marrow cavity thru the laterally or obliquely directed connecting Volkmanns canals

The different canals provide channels for the blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves distributed throughout the bones.

central canal of osteon

osteocyte in lacuna

canaliculi
c/s of a Haversian system

Blood or Vascular Tissue

- composed of

a. matrix *plasma is the liquid matrix which bathes the cells; serum (liquid portion of clotted blood) b. blood cells which include wbc, rbc, and platelets *rbc contains hgb, an iron containing gas-transport protein; wbc are involved in phagocytosis, immunity, and allergic reactions; platelets are fragments of giant cells called megakaryocytes and participate in the blood clotting mechanism c. intercellular fibers which come in the form of soluble proteins called fibrinogen become evident only as fibers when the blood has clotted

NEUTROPHILS- most numerous - active phagocytes; number increases rapidly during short-term or acute infections - pink, lilac fine cytoplasmic granules - polymorphonuclear wbc (multilobulated, 3 to 5 lobes connected by thin strands of nucleoplasm)

LYMPHOCYTES- smallest - spherical or slightly indented nucleus - cytoplasm appears as thin rim around large nucleus - part of immune system *B lymphocytes produce antibodies; T lymphocytes are involved in graft rejection, fighting tumors and viruses

. Eosinophils -red coarse cytoplasmic granules -fig 8 or bilobed nucleus -increase in number during allergy attacks, and parasitic infection

Monocytes
- largest - nucleus often kidney-shaped - active phagocytes that become macrophages in the tissues -increase in number during chronic infections such as tuberculosis

Basophils
- the least numerous wbc - cytoplasm has a few large blue- purple granules * granules contain histamine (vasodilator chemical), w/c is discharged at sites of inflammation - U- or S-shaped nucleus with constrictions

MUSCLE TISSUE
- highly cellular, well-vascularized tissue specialized to contract and cause movement - has the properties of extensibility, elasticity, and contractility - the units of histological organization are cells that have become elongated and are properly termed as fibers

- the 3 types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

rapid, forceful, not sustained

rhythmic & automatic

slow & sustained

* Skeletal Muscle 1000X striations across muscle fiber

nucleus long parallel fibers

NERVOUS TISSUE
Is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves functions to generate and conduct nerve impulses as well as coordinate and control body activities

2 important properties 1. Irritability- ability to react to various stimuli 2. Conductivity- ability to transmit impulses

- 2 elements of nervous tissue

1. Neurons - structural and functional units of nervous tissue - impulse-conducting cells 2. Neuroglia/ glial cells - specialized cells of the NS that insulate, support, and protect the delicate neurons

neuron

neuroglial cells

Types of Neurons A. As to Structure

1. Multipolar neuron - with one axon and many dendrites; most common e.g. neurons in the CNS 2. Bipolar neuron - with an axon and a dendrite e.g. sensory neurons in eyes, nose, and ears 3. Unipolar neurons - with a single nerve fiber that divides into 2 branches e.g. most sensory neurons in the ganglia outside the brain or spinal cord

unipola r

multipolar bipola

B. As to Function
1. sensory/afferent - receive sensory stimuli from the environment and from within the body Receptors- consist of naked nerve endings, capsulated receptors(Meissners and vater Pacinian corpuscle, etc), and sense organs for the reception of nerve impulse 2. motor / efferent - control the effectors such as muscles or glands 3. association/ internuncial/ interneuron - found in the CNS and connect between other neurons; integrate information and responses of the CNS

NEURON
- structural & functional unit of Nervous System - composed of cell body and one or more processes Synapse- site of functional contact between 2 excitable neurons

Cell Body/ soma/ perikaryon

- contains the nucleus; the metabolic center - neuroplasm has neurofibrils (bundles of intermediate filaments that provide the shape cell and support) and Nissls bodies (prominent clusters of rER that produce proteins used for growth of neurons and for regeneration of damaged axons in the PNS)

Axon/ axis cylinder - longer process that joins the cell body at a cone-shaped elevation called the axon hillock - occasionally gives off a collateral branch but all axons end up in terminal arborization

- conveys impulses away from the cell body

Dendrites - short branched processes - convey impulses towards the cell body

2 Kinds of Nerve Fibers

1. Myelinated/medullated - possess myelin sheath; found in the white matter of the spinal cord 2. unmyelinated /nonmedullated - nerve fibers lacking the sheath ; found in the gray matter

Nerve Fiber - specifies an axon plus the associated connective tissue and blood
vessels - may acquire one or 2 coverings or ensheathments 1. myelin sheath- a multilayered lipid and protein covering that electrically insulates the axon of a neuron and increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction; Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the CNS; Schwann cells myelinate axons in the PNS 2. neurolemma (sheath of Schwann)- the outer nucleated cytoplasmic layer of the Schwann cell, which encloses the myelin sheath; found only around axons in the PNS

Structure of a Myelinated Nerve Fiber consists of the axis cylinder which is enclosed by the myelin sheath gaps that segment the myelin sheath at regular intervals are called neurofibril nodes (formerly, nodes of Ranvier ) the axon segments between 2 nodes are called internodal segments or Schwanns segments

each segment is obliquely partitioned by narrow clefts called incisures of Schmidt- Lantermann

PERIPHERAL NERVE
In peripheral nervous system , nerve fibers are grouped in bundles to form the nerve A single nerve fiber has a thin connective tissue septa called endoneurium Several nerve fibers forming a nerve bundle or fasciculus is enclosed by a compact layer of connective tissue called perineurium Several nerve bundles are held together by loosely arranged tissues called epineurium

epineurium

fascicle

perineurium

endoneurium

Peripheral Nerve (cross section) 100X

Clusters of neuron cell bodies and collections of nerve fibers are named differently. Nucleus- cluster of cell bodies of neurons within the Central Nervous System ; serves as control center for a bundle of neurons Ganglion- cluster of cell bodies of neurons within the Peripheral Nervous System; serves as control center for a bundle of neurons; sites for possible synapses of neurons between organs and spinal cord Tract- bundle of nerve fibers within the CNS; interconnects structures of CNS; conveys impulses Nerve- bundle of nerve fibers within the PNS; conveys impulses Nerve plexus- network of nerves within the PNS; provides overlapping innervation (nerve supply) to certain body regions