Bridge Engineering Lecture 1 A: Planning of Bridges Dr. Shahzad Rahman

Bridge Engineering
Lecture 1 A
Planning of Bridges
Dr. Shahzad Rahman
Bridge Planning
Traffic Studies
Hydrotechnical Studies
Geotechnical Studies
Environmental Considerations
Alternatives for Bridge Type
Economic Feasibility
Bridge Selection and Detailed Design
Traffic Studies
City Center
New Bridge
New Road Link
Existing Network
Traffic Studies
Traffic studies need to be carried out to
ascertain the amount of traffic that will
utilize the New or Widened Bridge
This is needed to determine Economic
Feasibility of the Bridge
For this Services of a Transportation
Planner and or Traffic Engineer are
Required
Such Studies are done with help of Traffic
Software such as TransCAD, EMME2 etc.
Traffic Studies
Traffic Studies should provide following
information
Traffic on Bridge immediately after opening
Amount of traffic at various times during life of the
Bridge
Traffic Mix i.e. number of motorcars, buses, heavy
trucks and other vehicles
Effect of the new link on existing road network
Predominant Origin and Destination of traffic that will
use the Bridge
Strategic importance of the new/improved Bridge
A thorough understanding of the river and
river regime is crucial to planning of Bridge
over a river
Hydrotechnical Studies should include:
Topographic Survey 2km upstream and
2km downstream for small rivers including
Longitudinal section and X-sections
For big rivers 5kms U/S and 2kms D/S
should be surveyed
Navigational Requirements

Scale of the topographic map
1:2000 for small rivers
1:5000 for large rivers
The High Flood Levels and the
Observed Flood Level should be
indicated map
Sufficient Number of x-sections
should be taken and HFL and
OFL marked on them
River Bed surveying would
require soundings
Catchment Area Map
Scale recommended
1:50,000 or
1:25,000
Map can be made
using GT Sheets
available from Survey
of Pakistan
All Reservoirs, Rain
Gauges Stns., River
Gauge Stns., should
be marked on map
Catchment of River Indus
River Catchment Area
River Catchment Boundaries with Tributaries
River Catchment Boundaries with Sub-Basin Boundaries
Hydrological Data
Following Hydrological Data should be
collected:
Rainfall Data from Rain Gauge Stations in
the Catchment Area
Isohyetal Map of the Catchment Area
showing contours of Annual Rainfall
Hydrographs of Floods at River Gauge
Stations
Flow Velocities
Sediment Load in River Flow during floods
Hydrologic Data
Example of an ISOHYETAL MAP
Hydrologic Data
Example of River Hydrograph
Hydrologic Data
Example of a River Hydrograph
Design Flood Levels
AASHTO Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating
Design Flood Levels

Design Flood Levels
AASHTO Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating
Design Flood Levels

Design Flood Levels
CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION
Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Design Flood Levels
Design Flood Levels
Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Design Flood Levels
Design Flood Levels
Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Freeboard Requirements
FREEBOARD REQUIREMENTS
Estimating Design Flood
Flood Peak Discharge at Stream or River Location
Depends upon:
Catchment Area Characteristics
Size and shape of catchment area
Nature of catchment soil and vegetation
Elevation differences in catchment and between catchment
and bridge site location
Rainfall Climatic Characteristics
Rainfall intensity duration and its spatial distribution
Stream/River Characteristics
Slope of the river
Baseline flow in the river
River Regulation Facilities/ Dams, Barrages on the river
Methods of Estimating Design Flood
1. Empirical Methods

2. Flood Frequency Analysis

3. Rational Method
Empirical Methods of Peak Flood Estimation
Empirical Formulae have been determined that
relate Catchment Area and other weather or
river parameters to Peak Flood Discharge
Popular Formulae for Indo-Pak are:
Dickens Formula
4 / 3
825 A Q =
Q = Discharge in Cusecs
A = Catchment Area in Sq. Miles
Inglis Formula
4
7000
+
=
A
A
Q
Ryves Formula
3 / 2
A C Q =
C = 450 for areas within 15 miles off coast
560 between 15 100 miles off coast
Flood Frequency Analysis Method
Usable at gauged sites where river
discharge data is available for sufficient
time in past
Following Methods are commonly used
Normal Distribution Method
Log-Normal Distribution
Log-Plot Graphical Method

Flood Frequency Analysis Method
Based on Assumption that events follow the
shape of Standard Normal Distribution Curve
Q
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Q Tr M P
K Q Q o + =
Q
P
= Discharge Associated with Probability of Occurrence P
QM = Mean Discharge over the data set
Q = Standard Deviation of the Discharge data set
KTr = Frequency factor corresponding to Probability of Occurrence P
Example of Peak Flood Estimation Flood
Example
Flood Frequency Analysis Normal Distribution Method
Actual
Year Year Max Flood Xi - Xavg (Xi - Xavg)
2
Ranked Flow
(Decending
Order)
Rank Probability Return Period
(No.) Q R P = R/n Tr = 1/P
(cumecs) (cumecs) (cumecs
2
) (yrs)
1970 1 26 2.9 8.3 48 1 0.04 24.00
1971 2 42 18.9 356.3 45 2 0.08 12.00
1972 3 17 -6.1 37.5 42 3 0.13 8.00
1973 4 35 11.9 141.0 35 4 0.17 6.00
1974 5 16 -7.1 50.8 35 5 0.21 4.80
1975 6 32 8.9 78.8 32 6 0.25 4.00
1976 7 48 24.9 618.8 26 7 0.29 3.43
1977 8 14 -9.1 83.3 25 8 0.33 3.00
1978 9 13 -10.1 102.5 23 9 0.38 2.67
1979 10 21 -2.1 4.5 21 10 0.42 2.40
1980 11 18 -5.1 26.3 21 11 0.46 2.18
1981 12 16 -7.1 50.8 20 12 0.50 2.00
1982 13 20 -3.1 9.8 18 13 0.54 1.85
1983 14 15 -8.1 66.0 17 14 0.58 1.71
1984 15 35 11.9 141.0 17 15 0.63 1.60
1985 16 45 21.9 478.5 16 16 0.67 1.50
1986 17 23 -0.1 0.0 16 17 0.71 1.41
1987 18 14 -9.1 83.3 15 18 0.75 1.33
1988 19 12 -11.1 123.8 15 19 0.79 1.26
1989 20 17 -6.1 37.5 15 20 0.83 1.20
1990 21 25 1.9 3.5 14 21 0.88 1.14
1991 22 15 -8.1 66.0 14 22 0.92 1.09
1992 23 21 -2.1 4.5 13 23 0.96 1.04
1993 24 15 -8.1 66.0 12 24 1.00 1.00
Sample Pts = n = 24
Mean Qm = M 23.125
Sum of Squares = 2638.6
Variance = 114.72
Standard Deviation = 10.71
Coefficient of Variation = Cv = /M =
0 . 4 6 3
Skewness Coefficient = SC = 3 Cv + Cv
3
= 1.49
Input Return Period (Years) = Tr = 100 Input Value
Probability = p = 1/ Tr 0.01
Flood Estimate = Qt =
=
=

2 2
) (
1
1
x x
n
S
j
=
=
) 1 (
2
n
V
S
= = V o
Actual
Year Year Max Flood Xi - Xavg (Xi - Xavg)
2
Ranked Flow
(Decending
Order) Rank Probability Return Period
(No.) Q R P = R/n Tr = 1/P
(cumecs) (cumecs) (cumecs
2
) (yrs)
Input Return Period (Years) = Tr = 100 Input Value
Probability = p = 1/ Tr 0.01
w = 3.03485528
K
Tr
= 2.32678649
Qt = 48.05 Cumecs
o Ktr
Q Q
m t
+ =
1
10
1 10 100
Seri es1
Log. (Seri es1)
w w
w
K
w
w
w
Tr 3 2
2
001308 . 0 189269 . 0 532788 . 1 1
010328 . 0 802853 . 0 51557 . 2
+ + +
+ +
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
p
w
2
1
ln
Log-Normal Distribution Method
Log Q or Ln Q
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

Q Tr M P
K Q Q
ln
ln ln o + =
lnQ
P
= Log of Discharge Associated with Probability of Occurrence P
lnQ
M
= Mean of Log Discharge over the data set
lnQ
= Standard Deviation of the Log of Discharge data set
K
Tr
= Frequency factor corresponding to Probability of Occurrence P
Q
P
= Antilog (ln Q
P
) = Discharge Associated with Probability of Occurrence P
Yields better Results
Compared to Normal
Distribution Method
Log-Plot Method
Log Plot Discharge Vs Return Period
y = 12.724Ln(x) + 11.733
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1 10 100
Retun Period (Yrs)
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
c
u
m
e
c
s
)
Observed Discharge
Log. (Observed Discharge)
Trendline Equation is
Qt = 12.724 Ln(Tr) + 11.213
For Return Period Tr = 50 yrs
Qt = 12.724 Ln (50) + 11.213 = 61.0 cumecs
For Return Period Tr = 100 yrs
Qt = 12.724 Ln (100) + 11.213 = 69.8 cumecs
Rational Method of Peak Flood Estimation
Attempts to give estimate of Design Discharge
taking into account:
The Catchment Characteristics
Rainfall Intensity
Discharge Characteristics of the Catchment
A I C Q
T
=
Q = Design Discharge
I
T
= Average rainfall intensity (in/hr) for some recurrence interval, T
during that period of time equal to Tc.
Tc = Time of Concentration
A = Area of the catchment in Sq. miles
C = Runoff coefficient; fraction of runoff, expressed as a
dimensionless decimal fraction, that appears as surface runoff
from the contributing drainage area.
Rational Method of Peak Flood Estimation
Time of Concentration can be estimated using
Barnsby Williams Formula which is widely used
by US Highway Engineers
2 . 0 1 . 0
9 . 0
S A
L
Tc =
L = Length of Stream in Miles
A = Area of the catchment in Sq. miles
S = Average grade from source to site in percent
Rational Formula Runoff Coefficient
Area Characteristic Run-off Coefficient C
Steep Bare Rock 0.90
Steep Rock with Woods 0.80
Plateau with light cover 0.70
Densely built-up areas 0.90 0.70
Residential areas 0.70 0.50
Stiff Clayey soils 0.50
Loam 0.40 0.30
Suburbs with gardens 0.30
Sandy soils 0.1 0.20
Jungle area 0.10 0.25
Parks, Lawns, Fields 0.25 - 0.50
Geotechnical Studies should provide the
following Information:
The types of Rocks, Dips, Faults and
Fissures
Subsoil Ground Water Level, Quality,
Artesian Conditions if any
Location and extent of soft layers
Identification of hard bearing strata
Physical properties of soil layers
Example Geological Profile:
Cross section of the soil on the route of the Paris
The diagram above shows the crossing over the Seine via the Bir Hakeim
bridge and the limestone quarries under Trocadro
Example: Cross section of the Kansas River, west of Silver Lake, Kansas
Typical Borehole
Seismic Considerations
Source: Building Code of Pakistan
Tectonic Setting of the Bridge Site
Source: Geological Survey of Pakistan
Environmental Considerations
Impact on Following Features of Environment need to
considered:
River Ecology which includes:
Marine Life
Wildlife along river banks
Riverbed
Flora and fauna along river banks
Impact upon dwellings along the river if any
Impact upon urban environment if the bridge in an
urban area
Possible impact upon archeological sites in vicinity

Bridge Economic Feasibility
Economic Analysis is Required at
Feasibility Stage to justify expenditure of
public or private funds
A Bridge is the most expensive part of a
road transportation network
Types of Economic Analyses
Cost Benefit Ratio Analysis
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Analysis
Bridge Economic Analysis/
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
Time
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Project Cost Benefit Analysis
The objective of LCCA is to
Estimate the costs associated with the Project during Construction
an its service life. These include routine maintenance costs +
Major Rehab Costs
Estimate the Benefits that will accrue from the Project including
time savings to road users, benefits to business activities etc.
Bring down the costs and benefits to a common reference pt. in
time i.e. just prior to start of project (decision making time)
Facilitate decision making about economic feasibility by
calculating quantifiable yardsticks such as Benefit to Cost Ratio
(BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
Note: Salvage Value may be taken as a Benefit
This includes cost of the Right-of-Way and substructure
What is Life Cycle Cost?
An economic analysis procedure that uses
engineering inputs

Compares competing alternatives
considering all significant costs

Expresses results in equivalent dollars
(present worth)
Time Period of Analysis
Normally equal for all alternatives

Should include at least one major
rehabilitation
Needed to capture the true economic
benefit of each alternative
Bridge design today is based on a
probabilistic model of 100 years
Time
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Costs and Benefits Change over the life of the Project

Amount of Money/Benefit accrued some time in future is worth less in
terms of Todays money

Same is the case with the benefits accrued over time

The Problem now is as to How to find the Worth of a Financial Amount in
Future in terms of Todays Money

This is accomplished by using the instrument of DISCOUNT RATE
Problem:
DISCOUNT RATE:

The annual effective discount rate is the annual interest divided by the capital
including that interest, which is the interest rate divided by 100% plus the
interest rate. It is the annual discount factor to be applied to the future cash
flow, to find the discount, subtracted from a future value to find the value
one year earlier.
For example, suppose there is an investment made of $95 and pays $100 in a
year's time. The discount rate according the given definition is:
% 0 . 5
100
95 100
=
= = d Rate Discount
% 26 . 5
95
95 100
=
= = i Rate Interest
Interest Rate is calculated as $ 95 as Base
Interest Rate and Discount Rate are Related as Follows
2
1
i i
i
i
d Rate Discount ~
+
= =
Discount Rate
Thus Discount Rate is that rate which can be
used to obtain the Present Value of Money that
is spent or collected in future
Net Present value of Cost incurred = Co = (1 - d)
n
Cn
In Year n
Net Present value of Cost incurred = Bo = (1 - d)
n
Bn
In Year n
Time
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Year n
Cn
Bn
Cost/ Benefit Projected
Backward
Bo
Co
What Discount Rate to Use?
A first estimate of appropriate Discount
rate can be made as follows:
Estimate of
Discount Rate = Federal Bank Lending Rate Average Long-term Inflation Rate
Note: By subtracting the Inflation Rate in arriving at a Discount Rate the
effect of Inflation can be removed from consideration during
Economic Analysis

The Discount Rate after subtracting the Inflation Rate is also
Referred to as the Real Discount Rate

Govt. of Pakistan uses a Discount Rate of 6-7% for
economic analysis

Asian Development Bank uses a Discount rate of 12% for
evaluation of projects

Discount Rate is less than the Real interest Rate as Governments
do not take a purely commercial view of an infrastructure project
Cost Considerations

Maintenance and
Inspection
Cost
Initial Cost
C
o
s
t
s

Present Worth
Years
Rehabilitation Cost
Salvage
Value
Salvage
Costs
Cost Benefit Ratio
Formula for Cost
Benefit Ratio
Benefit To Cost Ratio =
=
L
n
L
n
Cn d
Bn d
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
Costs of Value Present
Benefits of Value Present
Where L = Life Span of the Project in Years
d = Discount Rate
Bn = Benefit in year n
Cn = Cost incurred in year n
Net Present Worth/ Value
Net Present Worth/ Value = NPW or NPV
is defined as follows:
NPW = NPV = Present Value of Benefits Present Value of Costs
Note: If a Number of alternatives are being compared, the alternative
that has the highest Net Present Worth is the preferable one and
will also have the higher Benefit to Cost Ratio
What is Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
IRR may be defined as that Discount Rate
at which the Benefit to Cost Ratio (BCR) of
a Project becomes exactly 1.0
It is a better measure of economic viability
of a project compared to Benefit to Cost
Ratio
It is a good indicator of how much inflation
increase and interest rate hike a project
can tolerate and still be viable
Present Worth Factor
pwf = Present Worth Factor for discount rate d and year n
d = Discount rate
n = Number of year when the cost/ benefit will occur
n
d pwf ) 1 ( =
Present Worth Analysis
Discounts all future costs and benefits to the present:

t=L
PW = FC + E pwf [MC+IC+FRC+UC] + pwf [S]
t=0
PW = Present Worth/ Value of the Project
FC = First (Initial) Cost
t = Time Period of Analysis (ranges from 0 L)
MC = Maintenance Costs
IC = Inspection Costs
FRC = Future Rehabilitation Costs
UC = Users Costs
S = Salvage Values or Costs
pwf = Present Worth Factor
Time Period of Analysis
Normally equal for all alternatives

Should include at least one major rehabilitation
Needed to capture the true economic benefit of each
alternative

Bridge design today is based on a probabilistic model of
100 years
Maintenance Costs
Annual cost associated with the upkeep of the
structure
Information is difficult to obtain for a given
project
Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft)
Best Guess Values
Frequency - Annual
Concrete 0.05 % of Initial Cost
Structural Steel 0.05 % of Initial Cost
Inspection Costs
Should be taken for all alternatives preferably
every two years
(sqft) and by construction material
Best Guess Values
Frequency - Biannual
Future Painting Costs
Only applies to structural steel structures but
excludes weathering steel
Should occur every 20 years
(sqft)
Best Guess Values
Frequency every 20 years
Future Rehabilitation Costs
The frequency is not only a function of time but also the
growing traffic volume and the structural beam system
Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure (sqft) and
structural beam system
Best Guess Values
Frequency
First occurrence Concrete 40 years
First occurrence Structural Steel 35 years
Annual traffic growth rate .75 % (shortens rehab
cycles)
Salvage Value/Costs
Occurs once at end of life of structure

Difference between
Removal cost
Salvage value

Best Guess Values
Removal cost 10 % of Initial Cost
Salvage Value Concrete - 0 % of Initial Cost
Salvage Value Structural Steel - 2 % of Initial Cost
Benefits from a Bridge
Monetizable Benefits
Time savings to road users
Growth in economic activity
Saving of Vehicular wear and tear
Reduction of accidents if applicable

Other Non-Monetizable Benefits
Strategic Benefits

Bridge Engineering Lecture 1 A: Planning of Bridges Dr. Shahzad Rahman

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