Research Methodology

Contents of the course

Chapter- 1 Introduction, Types and Methods of Research and Ethical Issues in Research Chapter- 2 Formulating the Research Problem Chapter- 3 Research Process Chapter- 4 Review the Literature
Review concepts and Theories Review the previous Research Findings

Chapter- 5 Formulate Hypothesis Chapter- 6 Research Design Chapter- 7 Sample Design Chapter- 8 Methods of Data collection Chapter- 9 Data Analysis (Test the Hypothesis if any) Chapter- 10 Conclusions and Recommendations Chapter- 11 Research Proposal Chapter -12 Research Report

Chapter- 1 Introduction
Meaning of Research
Objectives of Research Motivation in Research

Types of Research
Research Approaches Need for understanding different types of research

What is Research?
Meaning of research Advanced learner Dictionary of current English Research is defined as a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge Redman and Mory Systematized effort to gain new knowledge Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.

What is Research?
According

to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

What is Research?
D.Slesinger and M.Stephenson in the

Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define the research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. In short, the research for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research

Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions

through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies); To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

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Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; Desire to be of service to society; Desire to get respectability. There may be many other factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand casual relationships, social thinking and awakening, etc.

Types of Research
1 . Descriptive Research It includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kind. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. 2. Analytical Research The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

Types of Research
3. Applied (Action) Research It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial business organization. The research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem.

Types of Research
4. Fundamental (basic or pure) research It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research. The basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of application and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. 5. Quantitative Research It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Types of Research
6. Qualitative Research
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating

to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of Motivation Research, an important qualitative research. It aims to discover the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are work association tests, sentence completion tests, storey completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or why they thing about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, and one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

Types of Research
7. Conceptual Research It is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterprets existing ones.

Types of Research

8. Empirical Research or Experimental Research It relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental research. It works based on hypothesis or guess as to the probable results and then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove hypothesis. Such research is the characterized by the experiments control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis

Types of Research
9. Observational Studies In this case the data are collected by observing some process which may be well understood examples study of work process, process reengineering or process mapping A sample survey, which is used to gain peoples attitudes to political questions or consumer goods is also a type of observational study. 10. Historical research It is involved with the study of past events Factors leading to the development and growth of cooperative learning. It utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Example the effects of decisions of the United States Supreme Court on American Education.

Types of Research
11. Correlational research It attempts to determine whether and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable (numerical) variables. However, it is important to remember that just because there is a significant relationship between two variables it does not follow that one variable causes the other. When two variables are correlated you can use the relationship to predict the value on one variable for a subject if you know that subject's value on the other variable. Correlation implies prediction but not causation. The investigator frequently uses the correlation coefficient to report the results of Correlational research. Examples are The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem or The relationship between anxiety and achievement or The use of an aptitude test to predict success in an algebra course.

Types of Research
12. Causal-comparative research It attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables of the study. The attempt is to establish that values of the independent variable have a significant effect on the dependent variable. This type of research usually involves group comparisons.

APPROCHES - RESEARCH STUDIES

The qualitative versus quantitative approach to the

classification of research activities classifies all research studies into one of six categories Qualitative approach The qualitative approach involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into phenomena of interest; data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of a verbal synthesis (inductive process)
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Historical research Qualitative research

Quantitative approach The quantitative approaches involve

the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena of interest; data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process)
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Descriptive research Correlational research Causal-comparative research Experimental Research

Research Approaches

There are two types of research approaches

Quantitative Approach 2. Qualitative Approach

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Quantitative Approach

It involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena of interest; data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process)

Purpose
It is generally undertaken to establish facts, demonstrate

relationships, determine effects, or test theory. Quantitative researchers are particularly interested in discovering cause-and effect relationships and generating data that allow outcomes to be predicted. An additional purpose of quantitative research is to generalize sample findings to more broadly defined populations. A quantitative approach would be appropriate if an researcher interested in answering questions such as
What causes? Which solution would be effective? Find the Characteristics Identify the Factors associated Predict the outcome

Strategies
In a typical quantitative study, the researcher preselect and defines how the variables of interest will be measured (i.e. develops operational definitions for the variables), collects and quantifies (i.e, assigns numerical values to) the data, and then analysis the data by means of statistical procedures. Quantitative studies are characterized by relatively structured designs and data-collection methods (example surveys, structured interviews, or structured observations) and relatively large samples. Sample size is predetermined by taking into account the statistical techniques that will be used to analyse the study data.

Strategies- Contd
The quantitative researcher typically has a short-

term, detached relationship with the studys subjects. The numerical data and statistical findings generated in a quantitative study are seen as ensuring objectivity and replicability. Quantitative research yields a broad, generalisable set of findings that are presented dispassionately and succinctly.

Strengths
Quantitative approach is generally credited with the following strengths The ability to efficiently generate broad-based data sets from large samples. Control over extraneous (unnecessary or irrelevant) variables, which facilitates the detection of cause- andeffect relationships. Methods of sampling and statistical analysis that facilitate generalizing findings from a study sample to the population from which it was drawn. Numerical data and statistical findings that are perceived as objective and highly reliable. This makes quantitative findings credible and highly convincing to many audiences.

Limitations
Quantitative research is associated with the following limitations; The high degree of control in many quantitative studies may compromise real-world generalisability of findings. Quantitative data can provide a rather superficial view of what is being studied because breadth of investigation and coverage of an issue are emphased over depth of coverage of a phenomenon. Numbers and statistics may create only an illusion of objectivity. That is, numbers can be manipulated and statistical findings can be interpreted inappropriately, thus leading to a biased response to a problem or issue. The results section of a quantitative study, which is usually replete with reports of statistical analysis, can be difficult to read.

Qualitative approach
It involves the collection of extensive narrative data

in order to gain insights into phenomena of interest; data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of a verbal synthesis (inductive process)

Paradigm
Qualitative research is based on a paradigm

that posts that truth is dynamic and can be found only by studying persons as they interact as unitary (beings) in mutual process with the Universe. Qualitative researchers believe that the basis of knowing is meaning, discovery, words, and uniqueness identifies three features that distinguish qualitative research approaches from a quantitative approach. Qualitative research then is research from and of the perspective of the subjects under study

Purpose
The purpose of all qualitative studies is to discover, explore and

describe phenomena. More significantly, the purpose of qualitative research is to identify the dimension of the phenomenon under study from the subjects viewpoint in order to interpret the totality of the phenomenon Qualitative research may make its greatest contribution in areas in which little research has been done and theory testing cannot be carried out because the variables related to the concept of interest have not yet been identified. In clinical practice, the results of a qualitative study may be valued and useful in their own right, or they may be used to develop or guide a subsequent quantitative or qualitative study. An researcher would use a qualitative research approach to answer question such as

What is going on here? What does -----mean to those experiencing it? How do people go about adapting to? What process do people use to cope with?

Strategies
Rather than being predetermined as it is in a quantitative

study, the design in a qualitative study is evolving and flexible. The researcher functions is the data collection instrument and collects narrative data from a small, purposively chosen sample. Sample size is determined by informational adequacy or saturation during the data collection process Samples of six to ten individuals are common in qualitative studies. Typical data-collection strategies include observation, interview, and document (eg. Records or diaries) review. The researchers relationship with subjects (termed informants or participants in qualitative study is egalitarian and empathic and involves intense contact.

Strategies
Where as quantitative researcher emphasis

objectivity, a qualitative researcher relies on subjectivity to enhance a study. Indeed, the researchers (subjective) field notes become part of the data set in a qualitative study. In a qualitative study, the data analysis process is ongoing, intuitive, and focuses on uncovering themes and developing explanatory frameworks for a phenomenon.

Strategies
The outcome of a qualitative study is a rich, real,

deep, and valid story that contrasts with the hand replicable and reliable data of a quantitative study. Because of their subjectivity and because data are generated from a small number of subjects, qualitative research findings cannot be generalized in the traditional (quantitative) sense of the word. Instead, they can be applied and transferred to other persons in similar situations with careful judgment on the part of the reader.

Types of qualitative research

The types of qualitative research used most frequently by

researchers are phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory.

Phenomenology It is specific type of qualitative research that attempts to provide insider information and develop understanding about lived experiences Focus: develop understanding about lived experiences Generic question: what is the structure and essence of this experience? Methods: unstructured interviews; inductive analysis Out come: a description of subjects personal meanings of a experience.

Types of qualitative research

Ethnography Focus: provide understanding of cultural norms, rules (survival skills or behaviour), and values. Generic question: what is the culture of this group of people? How do they behave, and the way they do? Methods: participant observation, interviews, document review. Out come: a guide for reorganizing needs; information about survival skills.

Types of qualitative research

Grounded theory Focus: eliciting and describing the psychological and social process that people use to help them make sense of their world and handle problematic situations. Generic question: what is the experience of (population of interest) with? What is the basic social process of .? Methods: participant observation, interviews, document review. Out come: a substantive theory

Strengths
All qualitative research studies are generally recognised as having the following strengths The data generated are rich, in-depth, and highly detailed. The approach uncovers the personal meaning of subjective experiences, Data are useful for developing individualized responses to typical experiences Findings can be used to develop subsequent quantitative and qualitative studies Because they focus on personal experiences and consider contextual variables, the findings are considered strong in terms of validity. Accounts of qualitative research are generally engaging and easy to read.

Limitations
The following characteristics are usually identified as

limitations of qualitative research Qualitative studies are generally very timeconsuming to conduct Though findings may be selectively transferable, they are not generalisable in the traditional sense. Because of the subjective and context dependent nature of qualitative data, findings are not replicable. Because they are not replicable, qualitative findings can be hard to sell to decision makers.

Why do we need to study different types of research designs

Reasons to Study the Different Types of Research Designs
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Once you have formulated a research problem, conducted a review of related research, formulated a research hypothesis, described a sample (subjects), and selected one or more measuring instruments you are ready to prepare the methods section of your research proposal or report. The methods section of your proposal should include sections on

a description of the subjects a description of the instruments to be used in the study a description of the research design a description of the specific procedures to be followed in your study.

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The methods section of your study will be followed by a description of methods you intend to use to analyze your data.

Stereotype of Quantitative and Qualitative research

Characteristic Reality Data Perspective Approach to knowing Research approach Research conditions Goal

Quantitative
Stable Numbers hard data Outsider Reductionistic

Qualitative Personal contextual Words soft data Insider Contextual holistic

Objective, rational empirical Subjective intuitive Controlled, laboratory Naturalistic, fieldwork Discovery, generate hypotheses Description Inductive, intuitive; themes Meaning, understanding Valid, creditable, transferable.

Verification, test hypotheses Methods Measurement Data analysis Deductive ; statistics Outcome Facts Findings / results Replicable; reliable; generalisable

Choosing a research approach: personal preference consideration

If you prefer to explore Incidence Performance Facts Relationships Cause and effect Meaning Experience Understanding Culture Adaption Processes If you prefer to Create questionnaires Design interventions, develop protocols Work with numbers Write concise, factual reports Talk and listen Search for meaning in words Write expressive essays and stories

Then choose a Quantitative approach

Qualitative approach

Then choose a Quantitative approach

Qualitative approach

Ethical considerations
Consent to participate in a study must be voluntary A study should be expected to yield worth while

results A study should be based on prior knowledge and justified by anticipated results Study procedures should avoid unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury A study should not be conducted if there is reason to belive death or disability will occur, unless the researcher is the subject

Ethical considerations
Risks in a study should never exceed the

importance of the problem to be resolved Research should be conducted in properly prepared and adequate facilities by appropriately qualified individuals Subjects must be able to withdraw from a study at any time without incurring a penalty

Ethical considerations
A study must be terminated if there is

reason to believe that continuation could result in injury. Do no harm principle to be followed Right to self determination Right to full disclosure Dilemmas related to the principle of respect for human dignity