SEQUENCING

The DNA is broken up into small lengths of bases These are then replicated , and the bases are marked with a colour code The mixture of bases are separated by electrophoresis A computer records the colour of the fragment as it passes the sensor

USING GENE SEQUENCING

We may well know the entire sequence of bases in our DNA, but we dont know exactly what they code for We dont even know all the genes that code for proteins We can use the gene sequences to compare the evolution of organisms Used to determine how closely related two species are

TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS
Recombinant DNA is DNA which has been altered by genetic engineering The gene that is required is identified, and is cut out of the chromosome Multiple copies of the gene are made using polymerase chain reaction The gene is inserted into a vector which is able to deliver the gene into the required cells

TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS
A possible vector for bacteria is a plasmid To get the DNA into the bacteria the plasmids are left in a culture containing the bacteria and Calcium ions. The vector insets the gene into the cells DNA These cells are then replicated

PRODUCING HUMAN INSULIN

The gene coding for human insulin is isolated. mRNA is taken from cells and used to make DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase, it is then cut to leave sticky ends. The insulin DNA and plasmid DNA from bacteria are mixed along with ligase enzyme. The ligase joins the DNA backbone and a recombinant plasmid is produced. The recombinant plasmid is added into bacteria, the gene is cloned by growing the bacterium. .

PRODUCING HUMAN INSULIN

It

is manufactured by growing the bacteria in large fermenters. The bacteria which can be produce insulin has it extracted from the After human insulin has been produced it is purified and sold to people with diabetes.

ELECTROPHORESIS

Electrophoresis is a technique used in gene technology, it separates different fragments of DNA according to their sizes. It is used in; sequencing a genome, in genetic fingerprinting and in identifying a gene to be transferred to another organism. A tank is set up containing agarose gel, a direct current is then passed continuously through the gel. The DNA fragments carry a small negative electric charge. They are pulled through the gel towards the anode. The smaller the fragments the faster they move. The DNA can be tracked when passing a point using nucleotides labelled with fluorescent markers. This uses the time at which the fragments pass a particular point to sort out the longer from the shorter ones.

ELECTROPHORESIS

When the current is turned off the gel contains fragments in different places, they are placed on absorbent paper to observe them better. The paper is heated to make strands in each DNA molecule separate from each other. Probes of DNA are added, they pair up with DNA on paper making them detectable by shining UV light on them, so a pattern of dark stripes on the film, matching the positions of the DNA in the agarose gel. When another family members DNA is used their pattern of dark stripes on the film then their pattern will be similar, however DNA from another person will have a different patter.