UMTS from the beginning

RNDPO 3G Design Team

UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Logical, transport and physical
channels
Channel mapping
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation,
Scrambling and spreading codes
Processing gain
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS cellular engineering
Network access
Cell search
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Logical, transport and physical
channels
Channel mapping
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation
Scrambling and spreading codes
Processing gain
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS cellular engineering
Network access
Cell search
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity
UMTS in Vodafone Radio History
1G (TACS Total Access Communications)
Analogue FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Systems in commercial
operation since the mid-1980s. Every user had a 25kHz channel in FDD
(Frequency Division Duplex), i.e. separate up-link and down-link frequency bands.
TACS supported speech and data (via modem)
2G (GSM Global System for Mobile Communications)
Digital FTDMA (Frequency/Time Division Multiple Access) Systems introduced
in the early 1990s. Every user has one of 8 timeslots on a 200kHz channel (also
operating in FDD mode). Speech, data (via modem) and supplementary services
3G (UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems)
Digital CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) Systems to be trial-led in 2001.
Use of WCDMA in 5MHz band FDD mode to support voice and data
communications of up to 2Mbps
UK 3G Spectrum Licences
TIW
4,384,700,00
BT3G
4,030,100,000
VODAFONE
5,964,000,000
ONE2ONE
4,003,600,000
ORANGE
4,095,000,000
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
FDMA, TDMA & CDMA
Power control
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Logical, transport and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation codes
Scrambling and spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity
FDMA, TDMA & CDMA (1)
1
st
Generation FDMA, e.g. AMPS, NMT and TACS
2
nd
Generation TDMA / FTDMA, e.g. GSM, DAMPS
3
rd
Generation CDMA, e.g. IS-95, WCDMA
p
f
t
p
f
t
p
f
t
FDMA TDMA CDMA
FDMA, TDMA & CDMA (2)
Data
Spreading code
Spread signal
Spread noise signal
De-spread noise signal
Spreading code
De-spread signal
1 Chip
1 Symbol
Spreading factor 8:1
3.84Mbps
FDMA, TDMA & CDMA (3)
Channelisation
code
Descrambling
code
De-spreading
DATA
A
B
G
p
B
A/G
p
DATA
A
B
R
b
Channelisation
Code
Scrambling
code
Spreading (G
p
= R
b
/CR)
OVSF
Gold
Power Control
Power control is vital to the operation of
any CDMA system
Because all mobiles share the same
spectrum (separated by PN codes) each
sees the other as background noise,
accordingly all mobiles must use the
minimum practicable power level
Mobiles are mobile, hence power
control is a continuous activity
Open loop fast estimate
Closed loop counters fading losses
E
b

Near-far
Problem
Handover
Hard handover the mobile performs a
simple handover between 2 cells
Soft handover the mobile is transient
between the coverage regions of 2 or 3
cells
Softer handover the mobile is
transient between 2 sectors
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Control, logical and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity
Architecture
CN
MSC/VLR
SGSN
HLR
GMSC
GSGN
UE
USIM
ME
Cu
UU
Iub
UTRAN
Iur
Node B
Node B
Node B
Node B
RNC
RNC
IuPS
IuCS RNS
Hardware Architecture
BT
NTL
C&W
etc
Node B
P
B
N
RNC
MSC
RNC
STM1
155Mbps
Iub/Iur/Iu
Iub
Iur/Iu
Iu
MTX
E
D
I
F
A
C
E
SRNC and DRNC
SRNC
DRNC
DRNC
Iur
Iur
UMTS Iu interface
Iu connects the UTRAN to the CN
Iu supports RANAP (RAN Application Part)
IuCS is circuit switched, IuPS is packet switched
Iur is the logical interface between two RNCs
Iur supports RNSAP (RNS Application Part)
Iur interface allows soft handover between RNCs built by different
manufacturers. Vodafone experience of a multi-vendor environment
indicated a more complicated situation
Iub interface connects a Node B and an RNC
Iub supports NBAP (Node B Application Part)
UMTS is the first telephony system to standardise a fully open interface at
this point in the network architecture
Air interface protocol stack
L1 Physical
L2 Link
L3 Network
L4 Transport
L5 Session
L6 Presentation
L7 Application
L1
L3
L3
L7
OSI Layers UE Core Network
Non-access stratum
voice data
internet
ftp
fax
irc
UTRAN
Access
stratum
0010110
01 1101
011101
101011
Uu Iu
Access Stratum (UTRAN)
Control plane signalling
User Plane Signalling
Radio Resource
Control RRC
Radio Link
Control RLC
L3
L2
Medium Access
Control MAC
Physical Layer L1
Logical link control manages
data transfers
Random access, error correction,
ciphering, link control functions,
multiplexing of logical channels
Physical channels spread
over large bandwidth
Logical Channels
Transport Channels
Physical Channels
Lower layer messaging (channels)
Logical
Transport
Physical
Radio Link
Logical
bits
frames
segments
OSI layer 3
OSI layer 2
OSI layer 1
Physical
Radio Link
Transport
ATM
RANAP
Relocation (SRNS relocation, Inter RNS hard handover)
Radio Access Bearer management
Iu release
Reporting unsuccessfully transmitted data
Paging
Tracing management
Transparent CN-UE signalling
Security mode control
Management of overload
Location reporting
RNSAP
Iur supports RANAP in four distinct ways
Support basic inter-RNC mobility
SRNC relocation
Supports inter-RNC cell area updates, inter-RNC packet paging
Reporting of protocol errors
Support of dedicated channel traffic
Establishment, modification and release of DCH in DRNC
Transfer of DCH transport blocks between DRNC and SRNC
Support of common channel traffic
Setup and release of transport connections for CCH
Split the MAC layer between SRNC and DRNC
Support of global resource management
Transfer of cell measurements between two RNCs
Transfer of Node B timing information between two RNCs
NBAP
Common NBAP
Set-up of RL for one UE, selection of traffic termination point
Cell configuration
Handling of RACH/FACH and PCH
Initialisation and reporting of cell or Node B specific measurements
Fault management
Dedicated NBAP
Addition, release and reconfiguration of RL for one UE
Handling of dedicated and shared channels
Handling of soft/softer HO combining
Initialisation and reporting of RL specific measurements
RL fault management
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Logical, transport and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity
UTRAN Access Stratum
Radio Resource
Control RRC
Radio Link
Control RLC
L3
L2
Medium Access
Control MAC
Physical Layer L1
Logical Channels
Transport Channels
Physical Channels
Logical channels
The MAC layer provides transfer access via a set of logical channels

A logical channel is defined for each different transfer requirement.
Each logical channel related to particular kinds of information that
needs to be transferred

Some are related to signalling information and some to traffic
information, accordingly, logical channels are split

control channels

traffic channels
BCCH PCCH CCCH DCCH
DTCH
CTCH
Mapping logical and transport channels
CTCH CCCH BCCH DCCH DTCH PCCH
FACH BCH DCH DSCH PCH RACH CPCH
Transport channels
Physical channels
L1
L2
MAC
Logical channels
Transport channels
common dedicated
Requires information about the
UE, since common channel is
divided on a cell wide basis
RACH
FACH
CPC
DSCH
DSCH CONTROL
BCH PCH
DCH
FAUSCH
Identified by a
certain code and
is thus UE
specific
Mapping transport and physical channels
DCH
DSCH
FACH
FAUSCH/RACH
CPCH
PCH
BCH
PRACH
DPCCH
DPDCH
PCPCH
CPICH
SCCPCH
SCH
PDSCH
AICH
PCCPCH
CSICH
CD/CA-ICH
PICH
Common PILOT Channel (CPICH)
CPICH is un-modulated but scrambled under the cell-specific primary
scrambling code (spreading factor 256)

CPICH aids channel estimation for the DCH and provides channel
estimation for the common channels (when not associated to the DCH
or during involvement with adaptive antennas)

Two types of CPICH:
Primary under a fixed cell-wide channelisation code. P-CPICH
involved in measurements for handover and cell selection/reselection.
Altering the CPICH power causes handover between cells
Secondary may have any 256-bit channelisation code (and may have
secondary scrambling codes also). Generally used in situations requiring
narrow antenna beams at hot spots, or areas of very high traffic density
Synchronisation Channel (SCH)
SCH also has primary and secondary channels, these are used for cell
search

Primary SCH uses an identical 256 chip spreading sequence,
secondary SCH uses different sequences representing different code
groups

Once the terminal has identified secondary SCH, frame and slot
synchronisation is obtained, as is information about the group the cell
belongs to
Uplink Channel
0 1 2 3 14
10ms
PILOT TFCI FBI TPC
DATA
2560 chips (about 666.7s)
DPDCH
DPCCH
Uplink channel multiplexing
DPDCH
(data)
DPCCH
(control)
Channelization
code, c
D
Channelization
code, c
C
I
Q
*j
Sqrt(G)
I+jQ
Complex
scrambling
code
G is the relative powers
of the DPCCH and the
DPDCH
Uplink Channel (2)
Control information (physical layer) carried by the DPCCH with a
fixed spreading factor of 256.
Higher layer information (including user data) is carried on the
DPDCHs with variable spreading factors from 256 to 4
DPDCH rate can vary frame-by-frame, rate information is carried with
the TFCI (which is on the continually transmitting DPCCH)
Uplink Channel (3)
When the Node B receives the signal on the uplink it de-spreads the
DPCCH to the max bit rate (smallest spreading factor) and then:
For every slot: decode the pilot for channel and SIR estimates;
update the UE power according to the TPC (transmission power
control) bits
For every 2
nd
or 4
th
slot: decode the FBI (FeedBack Information)
bits and make any necessary antenna diversity adjustments (phase
or amplitude)
For every 10ms frame: decode the TFCI information to get the bit
rate and channel coding of the DPDCH
For every interleaving period (10,20,40 or 80ms): decode the
DPDCH
Down-link Channel
Downlink
DPCH
Slot TFCI DATA TPC DATA PILOT
DPCCH DPDCH DPCCH DPDCH DPCCH
0 1 2 3 14
10ms
2560 chips
Down-link Channel (2)
Downlink Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCH) time
multiplexes control information and user data transmission

As with the up-link the DPDCH spreading factor is normally carried
on the TFCI:
If the TFCI is not present, the DPDCH bit positions are fixed, lower data
rates are implemented using DTX by gating the transmissions on/off
If TFCI is present, flexible transport slot positions for the DPDCH may
also be used
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Control, logical and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Pole capacity
Erlang capacity

Spreading Codes
Data
Spreading code
Spread signal
Spread noise signal
De-spread noise signal
Spreading code
De-spread signal
1 Chip
1 Symbol
Spreading factor 8:1
3.84Mbps
OVSF
(Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor)
C
11
=(1)
C
21
=(1,1)
C
22
=(1,-1)
C
41
=(1,1,1,1)
C
42
=(1,1,-1,-1)
C
44
=(1,-1,-1,1)
C
43
=(1,-1,1,-1)
Spreading factor 1 2 4 256
Reported by Adachi et al.
(Electronics Letters, Vol33,
No1, pp27-28, 1997) By
choosing codes from the
branch with the smallest
spreading factor different
length codes can be used,
and orthogonality
maintained.

Very similar to the Walsh
Codes generated using
recursive Hadamard
matrices
Channelisation Codes
Transmissions on the downlink within one sector (i.e. from a single
source) are separated by channelisation codes
WCDMA channelisation codes are generated using OSVF which
allows spreading factor to be changed and code orthogonality to be
maintained (managed at RNC)
Uplink : separates DPDCH & DPCCH
Downlink : separation of connections to different users within one cell
Scrambling Codes
Scrambling is used on top of channelisation to separate terminals or
Node-Bs from each other (scrambling does not affect the signal
bandwidth)
WCDMA scrambling codes are Gold codes with a frame length of
10ms
Down-link scrambling limited to 512 possible codes, several million
possible codes may be used on the up-link
If advanced Node-B receivers are used extended S(2) codes (much
shorter) can be used instead on the up-link
Channelisation & Scrambling
Channelisation Scrambling
Use Uplink: separation of
DPDCH & DPCCH
Downlink: separation of
UE in same sector
Uplink: separation of
terminal
Downlink: separation of
sectors
Length Uplink: 4-256 chips
Downlink: 512 chips
Uplink: (1) 10ms (2) 66.7s
Downlink: 10ms
Number of codes Determined by
spreading factor
Uplink: several millions
Downlink: 512
Code family OSVF Long 10ms code: Gold
Short 66.7s code: Extended
S2 code
Processing Gain
When spreading data the
bandwidth of the coded signal
expands by the spreading
factor, and hence rises above
interference. Processing Gain
(G
p
) gives CDMA its
robustness
G
p
=10log
10
CR/R
b
(dB)
25dB=10log
10
3.84
e6
/12.2
e3

(12.2kHz to support speech
service)

A
B
DATA
R
b
A
B
DATA
R
b
G
p
B
A/G
p
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Control, logical and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity

CDMA Cell Design
In order to achieve links with good
SNR across the cell 4 particular
parameters must be considered:
Radio link budgets
Down-link Ec/Io (pilot channel)
Down-link Eb/No (traffic channel)
Up-link Eb/No (traffic channel)

Radio Link Budgets
These are service specific, that
is, they describe the maximum
permitted path loss of a link
whilst retaining efficacy

Fast fading assumptions are
built into the speed of travel
suggested by the budget

The required Eb/No for the
service is defined at this point
Chip Rate cps 3.84E+06
Bit Rate bps 1.22E+04
Base NF dB 5
kT dB/Hz -203.9772
kTW dB -138.1339
NthW dB -133.1339
Base Ant. Gain dBi 17
Mobile Ant. Gain dBi 2
Building/Vehicle Penetration Loss dB 5
Ba se Ca b le Loss dB 2
Total Effective G_antennas dB 12
Users mapping No. users 5.07
Interference Margin dB 1
Eb/Nt (=Avg Eb/No+0.5dB) dB 6
Avg Eb/Nt (3% FER, 30kph) dB 5.5
Proc e ssing Ga in dB 24.97971
Effective SNR dB -18.47971
loading 0.195
BTS Rx sensitivity dBm -122.1136
Mean Noise rise dB 0.59
Soft Handoff Gain dB 3.5
Max Power (200mW) dBW -9
Sha d ow Fa de Ma rg in (single c e ll) dB 10
(93%-ile area re a lia bility fo r std e v=8.9d B,n =3.4)
Max Isotropic Pathloss dB 148.1136
S-Suburba n, R-Rural R
Max Ra ng e km 1.614134
Pilot channel Ec/Io
Ec/Io is the chip energy per interference density measured on the
PILOT channel

Continuously monitored, results are reported to Node B to determine
power should be altered (and consequently whether or not handover
should occur)

Ec/Io therefore largely determines the coverage area of a cell
Ec/Io Single Cell Single Mobile
P
0
Node B ERP
o
0
fraction of Node B ERP allocated to pilot
L
0
path loss from Node B to mobile
G receiving mobile antenna gain
I
h
power received at mobile from Node B
I
n
non-CDMA interference power
N thermal noise power
N I I
G L P
I
E
n h
c
+ +
=
0 0 0
0
o
The mobile in question is now also
receiving powers from other surrounding
Node Bs. These are treated as an
additional interference term
I
o
power received at mobile from
surrounding Node Bs (sum of received powers
passed through mobile antenna gain)


N I I I
G L P
I
E
o n h
c
+ + +
=
0 0 0
0
o
Ec/Io Many Cells Single Mobile
The Node B in question is now also
serving a number of extra mobiles (no
other Node Bs around)
The downlink powers to these mobiles act
as interference to the mobile in question,
hence I
m
as an interference term
I
m
is the total extra traffic power
received at the mobile (measuring E
c
/I
o
),
but is not deterministic because these
power levels are constantly changing


N I I I
G L P
I
E
m n h
c
+ + +
=
0 0 0
0
o
Ec/Io Single Cell Many Mobiles
In the case that many mobiles are being
served across many cells, Ec/Io calculations
combine the methods described previously.
An additional term, I
t
, is included in the
denominator
I
t
is the total traffic power received at the
mobile in question from all other Node Bs
(i.e. excluding home Node B)


N I I I
E
n h
c
I
o
+ + +
=
0
G L P
0 0 0
o
I
m
+
I
t
+
Ec/Io Many Cells Many Mobiles
SCH, Common Pilot, Ec/Io
SCH transmitted every 1/10 th of a slot and is non-orthogonal to all
other downlink channels, note this comparable to downlink pilot in
IS-95

Common pilot is orthogonal to downlink channels and is used for
coherent demodulation at the receiver

Ec/Io is the energy per chip over interference required for
successful detection of SCH or common pilot (-14 to -18dB). This
is the measure for adequate downlink coverage



Pilot Pollution
=
Io Ec
SCH
/
c: Proportion of power allocated to the channel under consideration
P
BS
: Power of BS
o: Non-orthogonality factor
G: Path gain due to antenna/feeder loss etc
T: Transmission loss
Pilot pollution occurs when several pilots serve an area at similar
level, hence giving rise to excessive interference, hence inadequate
Ec/Io for SCH
+
i i BS
T G P
i
GT P
BS SCH
c
GT P P
BS SCH BS
) ( c
Pilot Pollution - WCDMA Example
Assuming similar pathloss for interferers, the following simple
equation may be derived
Io
Ec
Io
Ec
N
Pilots
) 1 (
" "
c c
=
Example, UMTS SCH, Ec/Io=-18dB, and 10% allocated
5
0158 . 0
) 1 . 0 1 ( 0158 . 0 1 . 0
" "
=

=
Pilots
N
Example, UMTS SCH, Ec/Io=-14dB, and 10% allocated, ~2 pilots!
Traffic Channel E
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
, or, the energy per traffic bit over the total wideband noise,
effectively is the signal-to-noise ratio on the traffic channels
E
b
/N
o
can be directly translated to a BER (bit error rate) probability
(the exact method for calculating which is determined by the
modulation scheme used)
Different data services have different E
b
/N
o
requirements, e.g. 12.2kHz
speech service typically requires 5dB E
b
/N
o
P
j
power received at j
th
UE

CR chip rate
v
j
activity factor
R
j
user data rate
I
h
interference power at the mobile in
question emitted by the home Node B
I
n
interference received from non-CDMA
sources
N thermal noise power

N I I
P
R v
CR
N
E
n h
j
j j o
b
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Eb/No Single Cell Single Mobile
The mobile in question is now also
receiving powers from other surrounding
Node Bs. These are treated as an
additional interference term
I
o
power received at mobile from
surrounding Node Bs (sum of received powers
passed through mobile antenna gain)


N I I I
P
R v
CR
N
E
o n h
j
j j o
b
+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Eb/No Many Cells Single Mobile
The Node B in question is now also
serving a number of extra mobiles (no
other Node Bs around)
The downlink powers to these mobiles act
as interference to the mobile in question,
hence I
m
as an interference term
I
m
is the total extra traffic power
received at the mobile (measuring E
b
/N
o
),
but is not deterministic because the
orthogonality factor is constantly changing


N I I I
P
R v
CR
N
E
m n h
j
j j o
b
+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Eb/No Single Cell Many Mobiles
In the case that many mobiles are being
served across many cells, Eb/No calculations
combine the methods described previously.
An additional term, I
t
, is included in the
denominator
I
t
is the total traffic power received at the
mobile in question from all other Node Bs
(i.e. excluding home Node B)


N I I I I
P
R v
CR
N
E
t m n h
j
j j o
b
+ + + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Eb/No Many Cells Many Mobiles
E
b
/N
o
requirements for services
Required energy per bit of signal / energy of system
(wideband) noise (Eb/No) differs for different service
types (determined in the Radio Link Budget for the
service in question)
For speech Eb/No
is in the order 4.3dB
For data
Eb/No is in
the order 3.4dB
144kbps real-time data Eb/No required = 1.5dB
384kbps non-real time data Eb/No required = 1.0dB
Required SNR, E
b
/N
o
and G
p
Processing gain (Gp) is the ratio of CR/Rb, so
speech data at 12.2kbps has a Gp of 25dB
(10 log
10
3.8410
6
/12.210
3
)
For speech required
SNR is 4.3-25 = -20.7dB
For data required
SNR is 3.4-2.83 = 0.57dB
Required SNR = Eb/No - Gp
For data at
2Mbps Gp is
2.83dB
Uplink Eb/No Single Cell Single Mobile
In the single cell single mobile case the
calculation is similar to that expressed
for the downlink



All primed variables, e.g. P, refer to
The uplink
N I
P
R v
CR
N
E
n
j
j j o
b
+
'
'
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Uplink E
b
/N
o
Single Cell Many
Mobiles
Clearly an additional interference term needs to
be added:


I
m
is the total interference from uplink traffic
channel transmissions. Since these powers
appear random (due to power control) I
m
is
typically modelled as a random variable
N I I
P
R v
CR
N
E
n m
j
j j o
b
+ +
'
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
' '
Uplink E
b
/N
o
Many Cells Many
Mobiles
In this case there are other mobiles being
served on other cells that are interfering
with the uplink traffic of the mobile in
question, E
b
/N
o
calculation is modified:



Effectively I
t
is the total outer cell
interference
N I I I
P
R v
CR
N
E
n t m
j
j j o
b
+
'
+
'
+
'
'
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Control, logical and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink channel
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity

Power Control
Power control is vital to the operation of
any CDMA system
Because all mobiles share the same
spectrum (separated by codes) the Node
B sees the others as background
noise, accordingly all mobiles must use
the minimum practicable power level
Mobiles are mobile, hence power
control is a continuous activity
E
b

Near-far
Problem
Power Control (2)
Open-loop
Open-loop power control
estimates the channel and
adjusts power but does not
obtain feedback information to
determine effectiveness
Channel estimation is done by
measuring the received pilot
power and setting transmit
power to be inversely
proportional
Fast but not accurate (assumes
forward and reverse link paths
are closely correlated)
Closed-loop
Closed-loop control bases its
decision on an actual
performance metric: RSSI,
SNR, BER, FER etc.
The node B receives the metric
estimation and compares with
the chosen metric, a power
control command is then
issued to the UE
If the control decision is made
at the Node B additional
information regarding the load
of the cell can also be used

Downlink power control
Why do we need downlink power control?
Mobiles near the edge of the cell suffer from inter-cell interference hence
spoiling the ideal situation
Log-normal shadowing
Dynamic range of the downlink power control is smaller than uplink
and updates at a much slower rate
The mobile monitors the FER from the Node B and periodically reports
this back (some modes only report an FER which exceeds a set value)
The Node B receives the FER reports and slightly adjusts transmitting
power the aim is to equalize performance of the downlink signals in the
cell or sector
Downlink power control will alter the cell/sector shape and size
Uplink power control
Performance of the uplink is most
affected by the near-far effect
Fast closed loop power control
bases decisions on some
performance metric, e.g. received
power level, C-I, BER or FER (or
some combination). Performed
1500 times a second
If power control is performed at
the Node B additional knowledge
about the performance of a group
of mobiles may be used (more
accurate but more complex in
design)
Metric estimation
Compare with
reference
metric
Relate to
other users
Issue power
control
command
Receive power control command
In/Decrement transmitted power
Gain of fast power contol
Required Eb/No with and without power control
No power
control
Fast 1.5kHz
power control
Gain from fast
power control
Pedestrian at
3kmh
11.3dB 5.5dB 5.8dB
Vehicle at 3kmh 8.5dB 6.7dB 1.8dB
Vehicle at
50kmh
6.8dB 7.3dB -0.5dB
Outer loop power control
RNC if
quality <
target,
increase
SIR
target
BS if SIR <
SIR
target
send
power up
command
Frame reliability info
SIRtarget
adjustments
time
SIR
target
Mobile stands still
Power control algorithms are designed
to alter power to satisfy a given SIR
target (required Eb/No). Outer loop
power control means setting the SIR
target

on each iteration of the downlink power
control inner loop
Network access: uplink power
control
Access probes are used to
determine the initial power
setting at the mobile
Initiate with very low power
levels which are then increased
by access probe corrections
These are separated by some
random time to allow for
acknowledgement by the Node
B (and will not continue if the
Node B acknowledges
Initial
transmit
power
2nd access
probe
correction
1
st
access
probe
correction
Random Interval
Mobile
transmit
power
The RAKE receiver
Other multi-path signals can be regarded as interference
The RAKE is used to provide path diversity in multi-path channels
Each multi-path component demodulator is called a finger on the
rake
The number of fingers on the rake sets the hardware complexity,
however there exists a law of diminishing returns whereby the
increase in numbers of fingers initially provides large improvements
but gains are soon not so substantial (the higher number of fingers also
drains battery power faster)
Chip rate of 3.84Mbps theoretically enables coherent resolution of
multipath components that are 0.26s apart
The multi-path effect
The timing delays introduced by multi-path signals will lead to a loss
of orthogonality between signals. Due to the variation of the channel
in a given environment, the non-orthogonality factors are actually a
distribution. However in many capacity estimates we simply
associate single figures with different environments
RAKE receiver block
DEMUX
c(t-t
1
)
c(t-t
3
)
c(t-t
2
)
a
1

a
2

a
3

RAKE
t
1

t
3

t
2

a
1
a
2
a
3
Multipath channel
MUX
Code
Gen
Electronically representing
the signal bouncing around
buildings, trees, aeroplanes
etc.
The elements of the RAKE
come out from a single bar
with a physical appearance
similar to a garden rake,
hence the name
The RAKE receiver (2)
Performs four main operations:
It extracts the signal energy of each distinct path (by correlation to
time delayed version of signal with locally generated code)
It removes phase difference between paths (by multiplying the signal
by its complex conjugate of the channel response)
It weights each path according to their received signal energy (again by
the multiplication process with the complex conjugate of the channel
response)
It sums the path energies before making a decision on the transmitted
data bit (maximal ratio combing)
RAKE summary
On a downlink a mobile receives the complete CDMA signal from a
single source, i.e. the Node B, with the same relative power. The ideal
link
Orthogonal codes are used to separate channels/users on the downlink
Overlaying PN codes are used to separate the Node Bs
Multi-path can be utilised by the RAKE at the UE, but too many strong
peaks in the channel response can lead to loss of orthogonality on the
downlink
Handover
When mobiles travel between cells they
handover to the neighbouring
cell/sector
UMTS exhibits three types of handover
Intra-mode
Soft (between cells)
Softer (between sectors of a cell)
Hard (between cells)
Inter-mode
Handover to TDD mode
Inter-system
Handover to GSM

Active/Neighbour Sets
Ec/Io measurements are signalled to the RNC (using Layer 3 signals),
these then are used to determine whether hand-over should occur

The following lists of cells are maintained

Active set those cells which currently communicate with the UE

Neighbourhood/monitored set the list of cells continuously monitored by
the UE but whose Ec/Io is not strong enough to be added to the Active set

IS-95 also maintains a Candidate Set but this is not used in WCDMA
Hard Handover
In FDMA and TDMA systems handover occurs when signal strength
of a neighbouring BS exceeds the signal strength of the serving BS by
a given threshold (typically 2-4dB). This is a break before make
approach also called Hard Handover
Not suitable for CDMA systems as F reuse = 1 and this type of handoff
will cause too much interference i.e. near-far effect causes problems.
Hence the UE starts talking to the neighbouring BS at the same time as
it is talking to its serving BS. This is a make-before-break approach,
known as Soft Handover
Hard Handover is used for CDMA systems when handing between
channels (Licence A has 14.8MHz, nearly 3 channels), inter-system (to
non-CDMA systems) is obviously also HHO
Soft Handover
Mobile is located in overlapping coverage
areas of two or three cells (served by
separate Node Bs) communicates with
more than one sector of the same cell:
Multiple separate (i.e. using different
cell scrambling codes) communications
These are combined in the mobile on the
downlink
These are combined in the RNC on the
uplink
to ensure best possible frame reliability
to alleviate outer loop power control
issues
Soft handover Functions
Three main functions are required to perform SHO
Radio link addition
Radio link deletion
Radio link replacement (combined addition and deletion)

These functions are used to add, delete or delete_and_add to the active
set (each has a specified hysteresis event condition that must be met)

These are placed in the SHO algorithm
UMTS algorithm differs slightly from the IS-95 algorithm (i.e. candidate
set maintenance)
WCDMA soft handover algorithm
ActiveSetFull?
PilotEcIo
AddCellToActiveSet
RemoveCellFromActiveList
Replace WeakestInActiveSet with BestCandidatePilot
PilotEcIo > BestPilotEcIo (ReportingRange + HysteresisEventA)
PilotEcIo < BestPilotEcIo (ReportingRange HysteresisEventB)
BestCandidatePilotEcIo > (WorstOldPilotEcIo + HysteresisEventC)
No
No
Yes
WCDMA hand-over
Assume that triggering time is instantaneous, and that maximum active set size is 2
Ec/Io
Reporting range
HysteresisEvent1A
CPICH 1
CPICH 2
CPICH 3
a
n
1
2,3
a
n
1,2
3
a
n
HysteresisEvent1C
2,3
1
Reporting range +
HysteresisEvent1B
a
n
2
1,3
Execution of SHO
The new Node B needs to know the following RNC information
which service is being used
what connection parameters are being used
UE ID and up-link scrambling code
relative timing information of the new cell with respect to existing UE
connections

The UE needs to know via existing connections
the channelisation codes used for transmission
relative timing information
Timing in SHO
Serving Node B CPICH
Target Node B CPICH
Timing
difference
measurement
DCH timing
adjustment
Softer Handover
Mobile is located in overlapping coverage areas of two
sectors of the same cell. Mobile communicates with
both sectors:
Multiple separate (i.e. using different cell
scrambling codes) communications
These are combined in the mobile on the downlink
These are combined in the node B on the uplink
Otherwise all is similar to soft handover
Power control during handover
Both Node Bs
detect downlink
power control
command
Risk of power drift,
controlled via RNC
Uplink
power-control
reliability check
Downlink combining reduces the required
transmit power, thus reducing interference.
The downlink performance is also improved
in most environments
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Control, logical and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Pole capacity
Erlang capacity

FER
Frame Error Rate (FER) translates directly to perceived
voice quality, therefore FER should be optimised on both
uplink and downlink
Eb/No is a quantifiable measure that quickly approximates
FER (an accurate FER figure can be determined but
requires time)
There are a number of common causes of high FER
Poor down-link coverage (Low Eb/No due to high path loss)
Down-link interference (reception of high interfering powers)
Poor up-link coverage (path loss overwhelms power control)
Up-link interference (from traffic channels from other mobiles and
noise from non-CDMA origin)
UMTS from the beginning
UMTS in Vodafone radio history
UMTS basics
CDMA
Power control, and noise-rise
Handover
UMTS architecture and interfaces
UMTS channel structure
Control, logical and physical
channels
Channel mapping
Downlink and uplink frame
structure
UMTS spread spectrum processes
Channelisation, scrambling and
spreading codes
Processing gain
UMTS design engineering
Radio link budgets
Ec/Io, PILOT pollution, Eb/No
UMTS cellular engineering
Power control
RAKE receiver
Hard, soft, softer handover
UMTS performance engineering
BER, FER
UMTS traffic engineering
Noise rise and F-factor
Load factor
Pole capacity


Noise rise & F factor
oc hc
hc
I I
I
F
+
=
F factor is the proportion of noise
rise attributed to interference
from home cell (F=1, means
100% home interference)
Max load
Home-cell interference (I
hc
)
Outer-cell interference (I
oc
)
Noise rise, R, rise of interference above thermal noise
N
N I I I
R
n t m
+
'
+
'
+
'
=
Uplink load factor
Assuming perfect power control:
) 1 (
=
N P
P
I
C
j
j
Where Pr is the received signal power at the Node B and N is the total number of users.
As N grows large the C-I ratio is effectively the reciprocal of the number of users
) (
1
>> ~

N
N P I
P
R v
W
j Total
j
j j
( )
Total
j j
r
j
I
v R
I
C
W
P

+
=
1
1
Rearranging for P
j
and expanding L
j
Total j j
I L P =
The received power
at j is a proportion of
the total power. This
proportion is the
LOAD FACTOR for
the connection to j
The UPLINK LOAD
FACTOR is the sum
of the individual
factors

=
=
N
j
j ul
L
1
q
Uplink load factor (2)
The uplink load factor calculation can be simplified to:
) 1 ( i v N
R CR
I C
ul
+ = q
Definition Typical value
N Number of users
vj Voice activity of user j at
physical layer
0.67 for speech
1.0 for data
C/I Eb/No to meet a predefined
QoS
Service dependant
CR WCDMA chip rate 3.84Mbps
Rj Bit rate of user j Service dependent
i Proportion of effective
outer cell interference
Design dependant
Downlink
The key difference to up-link load-factor is orthogonality. Orthogonal
codes separate users on the down-link, but if the delay spread is too
great then the UE might some of the Node B signal as multi-cell
interference
In the down-link the ratio of own-cell to other cell interference is
different for each user
Soft handover affects interference calculations by assuming additional
connections within the cell at the same time Eb/No gains from
macro-diversity reduce the Eb/No requirement for each user
( ) | |
j j
j
j
N
j
j dl
i
R
CR
I C
v +

=
o q 1
1
Down-link load factor
Definition Recommended value
N Number of connections power
cell
v
j
Activity factor of user j 0.67 for speech, 1.0 for data
C-I Eb/No required to meet QoS
for a given service
Dependent on service, data rate, mobile speed etc
CR Chip rate 3.84Mbps
R
j
Bit rate of user j Dependent on service
o
j
Orthogonality factor of user j Dependent on multi-path propagation
i
j
Ratio of other cell to own cell
interference
Each user sees a different i
j
, depending on location in
cell and log normal fading
o Average orthogonality factor
in cell
ITU vehicular A channel = 60%
ITU pedestrian A channel = 90%
I Average other cell to own cell
received by all users
Macro-cell with omni-directional antenna = 55%
References
WCDMA for UMTS, Holma &
Toskala Eds. Wiley, 2000
CDMA RF System Engineering,
Yang, Artech House, 1998
3GPP documentation
Course Notes
Wray Castle
Philips
Lucent
Personal communications
Graham Price, Julie Canning,
Stuart Davis, Andy De La Torre
Presentations
UMTS Capacity and Planning,
Dave Lister
Shirin Dehghan
Radio Resource Management
Strategies for WCDMA Amer El-
Saigh
Peter Cosimini
Andy De La Torre