Why measure pressure?

4 Common Reasons

Safety
prevent pressurized pipes & vessels from bursting

Process Efficiency
variation of pressure below or above a set-point will result in scrap rather

than useable product in some manufacturing process

Cost Saving
preventing unnecessary expense of creating more pressure or vacuum than is

required saves money

Inferred Measurement of Other Variables

rate of flow through a pipe level of fluid in a tank density of fluid how two or more liquids in a tank interface

Weight = 100lb 1 sq ins 100 sq ins

100 sq ins

1 sq ins

Pressure = 1lb/in

Pressure = 100 lb/in

LIQUIDS The pressure exerted by a liquid is influenced by 3 main factors. 1. 2. 3. The height of the liquid. The density of the liquid. The pressure on the surface of the liquid.

GASES The pressure exerted by a gas is influenced by 2 main factors.

1. 2. Volume of the gas container. Temperature of the gas

Note. Gases are compressible whereas liquids are not

Pressure terminology
Engineering Units

Pressure is defined as FORCE applied over a unit AREA.

P = F/A
Examples of pressure units:
Units of force per unit area Pascals Pa N / m2 (Newtons / square metre) psi lbs/in2 (Pounds / square inch) Bar Bar = 100,000 Pa Units referenced to columns of liquids ins. water gauge in H2O Pressure applied by a 1 inch column of water at 20C. mm water gauge mm H2O

ins. mercury mm mercury

Atmosphere

in Hg mm Hg
atm

Pressure applied by a 1 inch column of mercury with a density of 13.5951 g/cm. Pressure exerted by the earths atmosphere at sea level (approximately 14.6959psi)
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Pressure terminology
Reference Pressure
Absolute Gage Compound Range Barometric Range
Atmospheric Pressure Approx. 14.7 psia
Pressure Total Vacuum (Zero Absolute)

Gage(psig) - Level of pressure relative to atmospheric Positive or negative in magnitude

Absolute(psia) - based from zero absolute pressure - no mass Typical atm reference: 14.73 psia Compound Range (psig) - Gage reading vacuum as negative value Differential(psid) - difference in pressure between two points
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Pressure terminology
Measurable Pressures

The four most common types of measurable pressures used in the process control industries are: 1. Head Pressure or Hydrostatic Pressure.
Pressure exerted by a column of liquid in a tank open to atmosphere, HEAD PRESSURE = HEIGHT x DENSITY

2. Static Pressure, Line Pressure, or Working pressure Pressure exerted in a closed system
3. Vapor Pressure The temperature at which a liquid boils, or turns into a vapor varies depending on the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point. 4. Vacuum Absolute pressure below atmospheric pressure ( a compound range gage transmitter will read a negative pressure)

Inferring non-pressure variables

Flow

Line Pressure Orifice Plate

Flow Restriction in Line cause a differential Pressure

QV= K

DP
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Inferring non-pressure variables

Flow

Theoritical equations come from 3 sources:

Qm= K
Continuity Equation

DP

Flow into pipe equals flow out of pipe and is the same at all pipe cross sections (Conservation of Mass)

Bernoullis Equation

(Conservation of Energy for fluid in a pipe)

Experimentally Determined Correction Factors

Discharge Coefficient Gas Expansion Factor

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Inferring non-pressure variables

Flow

Quiz: If an orifice plate creates a differential of 50 kPa at 50m/s

(i)

What would be the differential at 10m/s?

Qv = K DP Qv1 --Qv2 DP1 = ---DP2

(ii)

What would be the flow rate at 25kPa differential? Qv = K DP Qv1 --Qv2 DP1 = ---DP2

50/10 =
DP2 =

50/ DP2
10kPa

50/Qv2 = 50/ 25
Qv2 = 25m/s
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Inferring non-pressure variables

Level

Hydrostatic Pressure - The liquid will rise to the same level in each vessel regardless of its diameter & shape.

Unit Area (eg. per cm2)

Liquid

H
P P

Which shape gives higher pressure at the bottom of the vessel?

Similar height of column will have same mass acting on the same unit area

SAME PRESSURE

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Inferring non-pressure variables

Level

Quiz: Open Tank What is the level if Pmax = 120 inH2O, s.g.= 1.2?
Height = Phead / S.G
Height = 120 / 1.2
Tx

Height = 100 inches

L H

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Pressure measurement technology

Pressure Gauges Barometer
Used to measure Barometric Pressure Reference is 0 psia, due to low vapor pressure of Hg. General operating principle:

Tube completely filled with mercury & Invert into the container filled with mercury. The mercury level in the tube will drop until it reaches an equilibrium. This equilibrium height is a measure of atmospheric pressure. P =P
head atm

Patm

Phead

Barometric Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure

What is the barometric Pressure?

29.9 inHg
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Pressure measurement technology

Pressure Gauges

Manometers U-tube with one side reference, one side measured pressure
H

How to check for dP ?

dP = H (SGfill

fluid

- SGprocess

fluid)

Reference side can be: Sealed (AP reference) Open to atmosphere(GP reference) Connected to reference pressure(DP reference) Typically used for low pressures, non process control
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Pressure measurement technology

Pressure Gauges

Mechanical The mechanical element techniques convert applied pressure into displacement. The displacement may be converted into electrical signal with help of Linear Variable Displacement Transformer (LVDT).

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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Transmitters
Made up of 2 main elements: Transducer - Electronic sensor module that registers process variable and outputs a corresponding usable electrical signal eg. resistance, millivolts, capacitance, etc. Electronics - Convert transducer output to a standard output signal eg. 4 - 20 mA, 1 - 5 V dc, digital signal, etc.

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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Transmitters
(Standard signals)

Example of Application
Transmitter configured to operate from: 0 to 50 psi Electronic Output: 4 to 20 mA This mean 0% reading (0 psi) represents 4 mA and 100% reading (50 psi) represents 20 mA.

Signal To Controller

Transmitter

Sensing Diaphragm

Signal from sensor module (Transducer)

(Line / Static Pressure)

Process Variable

What will be the output current at 25 psi reading?

4 + (25/50)*16 = 12 mA
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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Characterized by the type of sensing element:

Variable capacitance

Variable Resistance (Wheatstone bridge) Strain gauge Thin -film strain gauge Diffused, strain gauge Variable inductance
Variable reluctance Piezoelectric

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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Variable Capacitance
Process pressure transmitted thru

isolating diaphragm
Distortion of sensing diaphragm

proportional to the differential pressure

Position of sensing diaphragm

detected by capacitor plates

Differential capacitance translated to

4-20mA or 10-50mA output dc signal.

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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Variable Resistance / Piezo-Resistive

Process pressure transmitted thru isolating diaphragm

Very small distortion in sensing diaphragm

Applies strain to a wheatstone bridge circuit Change in resistance translated to 4-20mA or 1-5V dc signal

Thin Film Strain Gauge

Diffused Strain Gauge

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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric crystal is a natural or a synthetic crystal that produces a voltage when pressure is applied to it. Voltage produce by crystal increases with increases in pressure and vice-versa. The produced small voltage is then amplified to a standard control signal. Piezoelectric Crystal Control Signal

Process Pressure

Diaphragm

Amplifier & electronics

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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Variable Inductance
Inductance is the opposition to a change in current flow Alternating current pass through the coil Elastic element connected to core Applied pressure deflects elastic element Position of core changes relative to coil resulting in change in inductance Resistor connected in series with inductor to measure change in voltage.
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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Variable Reluctance
Reluctance is a property of magnetic

circuit A moving magnetic element located between two coils Coil turn electromagnet when excited by AC source Position of element with respect to the coils determines differential magnetic reluctance Thus differential inductance within the coils A bridge is used to measure changes in a circuit

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Capacitance Sensor

Lead Wires

Sensing element is really two capacitor plates with a common sensing diaphragm Process pressure is transmitted through the fill fluid to the center of the sensor Sensing diaphragm deflects proportional to differential pressure Differential capacitance is measured electrically through leads inside sensor.

Sensing Diaphragm

Capacitor Plate

Fill Fluid

Rigid Isolation (Glass)

High Side Low Side Sensor Diaphragm

PHIGH - PLOW C1 - C2
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Piezo-Resistive Sensor
Sealed Reference Insulated layer vacuum PRESSURE

Piezoresistive silicon sensor using a patented Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Sensor is a Wheatstone bridge circuit made from silicon resistors diffused on a silicon substrate Wheatstone Bridge is on the diaphragm

Silicon Backing Etched Single Crystal Wafer Silicon Wafer

Applied pressure deflects diaphragm and resistance of the resistors closer to the diaphragm center change Unbalanced bridge outputs mV signal proportional to applied pressure

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Reference Pressure
Capacitive Sensor Piezo-Resistive Sensor
Sealed Vacuum

Differential
High Side Low Side

Absolute
P2

P1

P1
Vented to Atmosphere

Gage
High Side

Gage
Vented to Atmosphere

P1

P1
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Pressure measurement technology

Electronic Pressure Sensor Modules

Output Electronics

Output Electronics

Sensor Module

Diaphragm Seal

Sensor Module

Sensor (transducer) module is part of the transmitter. Sensor will become active only when the transmitter is

powered. (Attenuation) Output Electronics in the transmitter translates the useable electrical signal from the sensor into a standard output signal.
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Open Vessel Level Calculation

Example: What is the Calibration Range?
100%

(at 0% level) 4mA pt? GP = Head1

= 1.1*10
= 11H2O
Tx

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Head2

10 H

20mA pt? (at 100% level)

Head1

0%

GP

= Head2
= 1.1*50 = 55 H2O

S.G = 1.1

Cal. Range = 11 to 55H2O

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Transmitter Overview
Standard current or voltage signal (ANALOG) Standard current or voltage & digital signals (SMART) Only high speed digital signals (FIELDBUS) Output Signal

Transmitter

Analog/Smart/Fieldbus Electronics
(To translate useable electrical signal to standard electrical signal)

Input Signal

Transducer

Sensing element + Electrical Circuitry

(To convert mechanical to useable electrical signal)
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Process Pressure

Types of Transmitter Outputs

Analog Transmitters Pure Analog Signal 4-20 mA or 1-5V or 3-15 psi pneumatic signal Smart Transmitters Digital communication (diagnostic signal) superimposed on analog signal (4-20 mA or 1-5V) Profibus Transmitters High Speed Digital signal only Foundation Fieldbus Transmitters High Speed Digital signal only Control in the Field functionality

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Analog Transmitter Overview

Analog transmitter is made up of two basic component:

Sensor Module Analog Electronics Signal from sensor module is amplified & translated into standard current or voltage signal by the electronics
Pressure Input Signal

Pressure Transducer Sensor Signal Conditioning Capacitance /

mV Signal

Zero Standard Output Signal Span

Eg).

Output = 4-20 mA current signal only

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How Analog Transmitters Works ?

Sensor registers process variable. Sensor board outputs a corresponding electrical signal to output electronics. Signal conditioned & translated to a standard current signal Zero & Span Pots are used to set operating range.

Sensor Circuit Board Sensor Block PV

uF

Signal Conditioning

Zero Pot set 4 mA 4-20 mA Amplified value Current Only Signal Output set 20 mA value Span Pot
Loop wire pair (Power Cable)
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Cable Link

Transducer

Output Electronics

HART Protocol
Highway Addressable Remote Transducer
An open protocol Users are not locked into a single supplier
+0.5 mA
0 mA 0.5 mA
Freq. Shift Binary Status

1200 Hz 2200 Hz

1 0

20 mA

1200 Hz 2200Hz HART protocol uses a frequency shift keying based on Bell 202 physical layer to superimpose digital communication on to the 4 - 20 mA current loop.
Analog Output representing process variable

Average modulating current signal is ZERO

Digital Communications 4 mA Therefore HART protocol does NOT affect 4-20 mA signal (HART Protocol)
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Mounting Configurations
Gas Service

Mounting Configuration
Condensate fall back into the pipe/process

Thermal isolation by filling condensate

Steam Service

Gas Service
Slope

Slope
1 inch per foot

1 inch per foot

Liquid Service

Vapor will rise back into the pipe/ process

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