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1. Epithelial or epithelium found covering the human body(skin) and lining cavities and tubes (lungs, stomach, blood vessels) also found in glands
Skeletal Bones, cartilage, ligaments. Muscular muscles Nervous brain spinal cord, nerves and sense organs Endocrine Glands that secrete hormones Circulatory heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and nodes Respiratory lungs trachea and other air passages Digestive Mouth, stomach, intestines liver and pancreas Excretory/Urinary kidneys, bladder and associated structures Reproductive gonads and associated structures Immune - lymph nodes, thymus gland, spleen, tonsils, white blood cells Integumentary Includes skin, nails, glands, hair and other associated structures.
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Directional terms
Superior Toward the head Inferior Toward the feet Anterior Toward the front Posterior Toward the back Medial Closer to the midline of the body Lateral toward one side of the body
Directional terms
Proximal Closer to the body midline or point of attachment of the trunk Distal further away from the body midline or attachment to the trunk Superficial structures located towards the surface of the body Deep Structures located within the body are deep eg blood vessels located in a muscle are deep to those in the skin
Body Cavities
The spaces within the body are called body cavities. They contain internal organs. The major cavities are: Cranial cavity holds the brain. Thoracic cavity holds the lungs and heart. Abdominopelvic cavity - pelvic cavity- holds stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys and ureters Spinal canal holds the spinal cord
Skeletal System
The functions of the skeletal system are: 1. Provide support for soft tissues and organs. 2. Provide protection for organs. 3. Allow movement. 4. Provide a means of producing and storing blood cells, calcium and phosphorous.
Types of Bones
1. 2. 3. 4. Bones are classified according to shape. Long Bones movement. Short bones - collected in small groups. Flat bones - protection. Irregular bones holes pass through for blood vessels and nerves.
Structural terms
Tuberosity: roughened bony projections, usually for attachment of muscles and ligaments. Process: a bony projection that often constitutes a major part of the bone
Fibrous Joints
Are mostly immobile. Occur where bones are united. Examples :skull, pelvis.
Cartilaginous Joints
Are united by intervening cartilage. Allow slight movement where the pad of cartilage is compressed. Examples: joints between the vertebrae and the 2 pelvic bones (symphysis pubis).
Synovial Joints
Allow a wide range of movement. Are classified according to the range of movement possible or to the shape of the articulating parts of the bones involved. Types include: Ball and socket, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle and gliding.
Synovial Joints
Ball and Socket: Permits side to side, back and forth and rotational movement. Examples hip and shoulder joints. Hinge: Allows back and forth movement such as bending and straightening, examples: knee, knuckle, ankle, elbow. Pivot: Allows rotation only. Examples atlas and axis and radius and humerus
Synovial Joints
Condyloid: Permits back and forth movement and side to side movement but not rotation. Examples carpals and the radius, metacarpals and phalanges. Gliding: Two bones with flat surfaces slide on each other. Examples between the carpals, between the tarsals and between the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs.
Synovial Joints
Saddle Joint: Permits side to side and back and forth movement, no rotation. Examples: joint between the carpal and the metacarpal bones of the thumb.
Articular Capsule The joint is surrounded by a sleeve of fibrous tissue which hold the bones together It is sufficiently loose to allow movement but strong enough to protect the joint from injury
Synovial Membrane: Lining of the capsule. Also covers parts of bones within the joint not covered by articular cartilage. Produces synovial fluid.
Synovial Fluid
Thick sticky fluid, of egg white consistency secreted by synovial membranes into the synovial cavity. Provides nutrients to structures within the joint cavity. Acts as a lubricant. Maintains joint stability. Absorbs debris produced by the friction between the joint surfaces. Prevents the ends of bones from being separated (like water between 2 glass surfaces).
Bursae. Sacs of synovial fluid that act as cushions to prevent friction between a bone and a ligament or tendon. These do not occur in all joints. Ligaments: Strong fibrous bands that unite articular surfaces and provide additional stability . Tendons: Join muscle to bone to allow movement and provide stability. Fat pads: Fill the crevices in and around the joints. Form protective cushions for joint structures. Articular Discs. Lie between the articular surfaces, absorb shock, maintain joint stability and protect bone surfaces.
Joint Movement
Flexion decreasing the angle between the bones, bending. Extension Increasing the angle between two bones Hyperextension extension beyond normal Abduction Movement of the bone away from the midline Adduction - Movement of the bone toward from the midline
Joint Movement
Plantar flexion Pointing of the toes Dorsi flexion Raising the toes towards the tibia Inversion Movement of the sole of the foot inward at the ankle Eversion - Movement of the sole of the foot outward at the ankle Rotation pivoting of a body part around its axis, as in shaking the head
Joint Movement
Circumduction A combination of movements that makes a body part describe a circle Supination Movement of the radius and the ulna to turn the palm upwards Pronation crossing of the radius and the ulna to turn the palm downwards Protraction Protrusion of a body part such as the tongue or jaw Retraction Opposite of protraction.
Type of muscle
Muscles can be described as either: 1. Voluntary muscles over which we have direct control or 2. Involuntary muscles over which we have no direct control.
1. Skeletal Muscle attached to the bones for movement (voluntary) 2. Cardiac Muscle Forms the walls of the heart (involuntary) 3. Smooth Muscle lines the walls of hollow structures involved in maintaining internal environment (involuntary)
Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles work by exerting a force on a tendon which pulls on the bone to produce movement. The muscle acts over the joint. Origin of a muscle is the point where the muscle attaches to the stationary bone. Insertion - point of attachment of the tendon to the moveable bone.
Skeletal muscles
Most skeletal muscles work in pairs, situated on opposite sides of the joint. While one contracts (agonist) the other relaxes (antagonist) to allow smooth movement at the joint (diagram page 36)
Skeletal Muscle
Other muscles assist when movement takes place. Synergist the muscles that aid or assist in the action of the agonists; guiding muscles. Stabilizers or fixator muscles that surround the joint or body part and contract to fixate or stabilize the area
Muscular Contraction
Tonic muscular contractions to maintain body posture. Isokinetic joint angle changes at a constant rate; max tension is developed in the muscle through its full range of movement.
Proprioceptors
Specialised sensory receptors in the muscles, joints and ligaments are sensitive to stretch, tension and pressure. These receptors relay information concerning muscular dynamics and limb movement to the conscious and unconscious portions of the CNS for processing.
Functions
Prepare food for absorption and for use by the millions of body cells Alters the chemical and physical composition of food for absorption. Eliminates wastes, resulting from the digestive process.
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4. Food enters the stomach where it is churned and mixed with gastric juices, including enzymes and hydrochloric acid. This changes the food into a substance known as Chyme. 5. Chyme is squeezed into the small intestine and acted upon by bile, pancreatic juices and secretions from the wall of the duodenum. 6. Most of the food is digested by the time it gets to the lower part of the small intestine and it is here that it is absorbed into the bloodstream.
7. Any food not digested at this stage moves into the large intestine (colon) together with water.
8. Wastes consist of undigested food and are removes via the anus.
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The Brain
Cerebrum Largest part of brain controls conscious activities Cerebellum coordinates muscular activities Medulla controls vital body processes Spinal cord controls reflex action
Neurons
The Kidneys
The function of the kidneys is to excrete urine. The kidneys can adjust the amounts of water and electrolytes leaving the body so that they equal amounts entering the body. The kidneys are also known to influence blood pressure, through a substance called renin.
The posterior pituitary gland secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin. ADH prevents the formation of large volumes of urine thereby retaining water within the body Oxytocin is responsible for stimulating contractions of the uterus during childbirth and also for releasing milk to the breast ducts in preparation for suckling.
Thyroid Gland
Located in the neck just below the larynx. Thyroid hormone regulates the metabolic rate and the processes of growth and tissue differentiation and development.
Parathyroid gland
Small round bodies attached to the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland. Helps maintain the blood calcium concentration. Accelerates calcium reabsorption. Acts on the kidney tubules to accelerate their excretion of phosphates
Adrenal glands
Located just above the kidneys, fitting like a cap over these organs. Outer portion adrenal cortex hormones accelerate breakdown of proteins and fats, maintain normal blood pressure, regulate mineral salt metabolism, secrete male and female hormones Inner portion - adrenal medulla hormones affect smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
Pancreas
Secrete insulin to accelerate the movement of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids out of the blood. Secrete glucagon to increase blood glucose concentration, the opposite effect to insulin.
Exocrine Glands
Secrete into ducts rather than straight to the blood, eg sweat glands, mamary glands, fallopian tubes, vas deferens of the testes.