Mantle

This is a thick layer (3000 km) of very hot rock called magma. It behaves like a solid but can flow in parts very slowly.

The Earth

Crust
This is the hard solid outer part of the Earth. It is made of rock and supports the oceans. It is between 5 and 70 km thick.

Inner Core
This is a ball of very hot iron and nickel. It is about 2,000 km thick. It is solid because of the immense pressure.

Outer Core
This is very hot, liquid, and is made of iron. It is about 1,500 km thick. Temperatures in the inner and outer core are between 5,000 and 7,000 C

Why are the inner parts of the Earth hot ? - because it is still cooling down from when it was first formed - because heat is generated by radioactive processes deep within the Earth

The Earths layers were formed early in the history of our planet. Heavy matter sank to the centre of the Earth while lighter material floated on top. This is why the mantle and core are much more dense than the crust. All of the minerals and ores that we depend on in our modern world come from the crust of the Earth. Man has not penetrated even a third of the way through the crust, so other methods have had to be used to understand the structure inside the Earth. Scientists use evidence from earthquakes. The seismic waves which travel through the Earth are affected by its structure, allowing scientists to build up a detailed picture of the inside of the planet (a bit like an ultrasound scan builds up a picture of an unborn baby). Scientists have also made detailed measurements of how the Earth affects the orbits of other bodies in space, and from this have been able to work out the mass of the Earth and calculate its average density. This density is much higher than the density of the rocks in the crust, which means the inner layers must be much less dense.

It is clear that the surface of the Earth is not flat mountains and valleys, shallow seas and deep ocean trenches all indicate that the relatively thin crust of the Earth has experienced vast forces which have shaped it, and continue to do so.

At one time scientists thought that features like mountain ranges were caused by the crust wrinkling as it shrunk when it cooled down much like the skin on cooling custard.

A number of key pieces of evidence led Alfred Wegener in 1915 to propose an alternative theory: - The coastlines of some continents fit together remarkably well (e.g. Africa and South America) - Fossils of the same plants and creatures were found where these continents appeared to fit together, with no satisfactory explanation of how they could have travelled between. - The same rock structures were also found Wegeners idea that the continents could move and that they previously been part of larger supercontinents was called continental drift.

Geologists found it hard to accept Wegeners ideas because Wegener could not explain how the continents had moved. In addition, geology was not the field of science in which Wegener was recognised as a specialist.
It was 1944 before scientists discovered the driving force which could move continents (natural radioactive processes causing convection currents). Other scientists found that the sea floor was spreading apart, and molten rock was spewing out between continents. The theory of plate tectonics was born.

Plate tectonics
The continents moved and split up very slowly a few centimetres each year. They moved because the Earths crust and uppermost part of the mantle is cracked into a number of large pieces called tectonic plates. They continue to move, some apart from each other, and others in collision with each other. The plates float on the mantle, which behaves as a very thick liquid. Natural radioactive processes deep in the Earth produce vast amounts of heat which cause the molten rock to expand and become less dense. This rises, causing convection currents. The tectonic plates ride on these convection currents.

convection currents in the mantle cause the plates to move

Plate tectonics
The continents moved and split up very slowly a few centimetres each year. They moved because the Earths crust and uppermost part of the mantle is cracked into a number of large pieces called tectonic plates. They continue to move, some apart from each other, and others in collision with each other. The plates float on the mantle, which behaves as a very thick liquid. Natural radioactive processes deep in the Earth produce vast amounts of heat which cause the molten rock to expand and become less dense. This rises, causing convection currents. The tectonic plates ride on these convection currents.

Location of volcanoes is clearly linked with tectonic plate boundaries

Where the plate boundaries meet, huge forces make the plates buckle and deform.
Mountains may be formed when plates push each other upwards. Volcanic eruptions may occur when magma is able to force its way to the surface. From a variety of clues scientists are able to tell when a volcano is threatening to erupt (watch the movie Dantes Peak). It is difficult to predict exactly when a volcano will erupt, however. Interested ? www.volcanolive.com

Sudden movements of plates past each other causes earthquakes. If earthquakes happen under the sea, tsunamis may be caused. It is difficult for scientists to know exactly where and when the plates will move like this, so predicting earthquakes is a difficult job.

0.9%

0.04%

The Atmosphere

21%

Nitrogen Oxygen Noble Gases Carbon dioxide

78%

4500 million years ago...

The very first gases in the Earth atmosphere, left over from the cloud of gas and stellar dust from which the Earth formed, were hydrogen and helium. These very low density gases were light enough to escape from the Earths atmosphere and were lost into space.

H2

He

4000 million years ago...

H2O(g)

CO2

N2

trace

NH3

trace

CH4

Intense volcanic activity released hot gases into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is thought to have contained nitrogen and carbon dioxide mainly, along with water vapour and trace amounts of ammonia and methane There is much uncertainty and debate over the exact composition some theories suggest it was almost all carbon dioxide, while other theories suggest nitrogen was also present in significant quantities

3800 million years ago...

CO2(g)

H2O(s)

H2O(l)

The Earth and its atmosphere cooled, and when it cooled below 100C the water vapour condensed and fell as rain, forming the oceans. Icy comets also brought water to Earth, adding to the oceans as they melted. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was able to dissolve in the oceans, forming hydrogencarbonates, which can be used to form shells of sea creatures.

The was little or no oxygen in the early Earths atmosphere. Scientists base their theories about what the atmosphere must have been like and how it changed on evidence from air bubbles trapped in ancient rocks, and by comparing with the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System.

Venus (left) and Mars (right) both have atmospheres which scientists believe resemble that on the Earth before life appeared

2200 million years ago...

Scientists think the earliest life on Earth began about 3400 million years ago when simple organisms like bacteria appeared. They could use ammonia in the atmosphere to make food turning it into nitrogen (denitrifying bacteria) or nitrates in the soil (nitrifying bacteria).

About 2200 million years ago algae and bacteria became able to use energy from the sun to photosynthesise, making foods for themselves. Oxygen began to be released into the atmosphere a waste product of this process

6 CO2 + 6 H2O
carbon dioxide water

6 O2
oxygen

+ C6H12O6
sugar (glucose)

Some of the earliest micro-organisms could not tolerate oxygen, and died out.

1000 million years ago...

Plants of all shapes and sizes flourished, using carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and increasing the level of oxygen in the atmosphere. Conditions on Earth were right for creatures that gathered their food from around them and used oxygen to break it down (respiration) to produce energy.

The amount of carbon dioxide fell to a very low level as it was trapped in the structure of dead plant materials which were buried to form fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide also dissolved in the oceans where it was later used by sea creatures as carbonates for shells formation, ultimately forming limestone as these creatures died and their shells became part of sedimentary rock layers.

An ammonite fossil

The increase in numbers and types of organisms using oxygen to respire and producing carbon dioxide as a waste product allowed a balance to be established between plant life and animal life.

6 O2
oxygen

C6H12O6
sugar (glucose)

6 CO2 +
carbon dioxide

6 H2O
water

For the last 200 million years the atmosphere has remained essentially stable.

This diagram summarises the main changes which have taken place in the atmosphere from the early volcanic atmosphere to the beginning of the industrial revolution

Nitrogen (and ammonia) Nitrogen was probably present in the early atmosphere, released with other gases during volcanic eruptions. It is also one of the two elements present in ammonia gas, which was present in trace amounts in the early atmosphere. There are different scientific theories about how much nitrogen there was, but it was probably a small amount compared to carbon dioxide. Nitrogen levels increased in the atmosphere up to 200 million years ago, as a result of: denitrifying bacteria converting ammonia into nitrogen ammonia reacting with the oxygen formed by the plants

N2

Bacteria & Oxygen reacting with ammonia

time

4 NH3 + 3 O2 2 N2 + 6 H2O
This reduced the level of poisonous ammonia gas in the atmosphere to nothing.

Oxygen

O2
Photosynthesis

There was little or no oxygen present in the early atmosphere. The appearance of algae and bacteria which could photosynthesise caused oxygen to enter the atmosphere as a waste-product and the level increased. 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Balance with respiration

time

Oxygen reacted with trace ammonia and methane in the early atmosphere, removing these poisonous gases
With oxygen available in the atmosphere, animal species began to appear which could use oxygen for respiration. This removed oxygen from the atmosphere, balancing the production of oxygen by plants. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Carbon dioxide

CO2
Photosynthesis Plant matter & fossil fuels Dissolved in sea Shells of sea creatures Industrialisation

The early atmosphere contained a high proportion of carbon dioxide. There are different theories as to exactly how much carbon dioxide there was. Carbon dioxide levels decreased due to photosynthesis. Plant matter became buried forming fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans, where sea creatures used it to form shells. These shells later formed sedimentary rocks. Trace levels of methane in the atmosphere reacted with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide :

time

CH4 + 2 O2

CO2 + 2 H2O

Carbon dioxide was also produced by animals as a waste product of respiration, and a balance was achieved lasting 200 million years with atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide at around 0.03% Over the last two hundred years the industrialisation of society, based on burning fossil fuels for energy and transport, along with deforestation to clear rainforest areas for development, have caused a rise in carbon dioxide levels to 0.04% a significant increase resulting in Global Warming.

The carbon cycle is a natural cycle in which carbon moves between the oceans, rocks and the atmosphere. Without mans interference the carbon cycle keeps on operating in balance. The oceans act as massive reservoirs for carbon dioxide, dissolving excess CO2 to produce hydrogencarbonates, and releasing it when it is in short supply. Carbon dioxide moves back into the atmosphere by a number of routes including respiration, and the decay of dead organisms.

The carbon cycle is the reason why the composition of the atmosphere remained steady for the last 200 million years, until burning fossil fuels and massive forest clearance caused atmospheric carbon dioxide levels to increase.

Life on Earth
There are many theories as to how life first started on Earth, but nobody knows for sure.

Amino-acids are fundamental building blocks for molecules such as proteins which are essential to living organisms. Some scientists, such as Miller and Urey have investigated how amino acids could have been formed on the early Earth.
The interaction of lightning with hydrocarbons and ammonia (both of which were present on the early Earth) has been shown to produce some of the 20 amino acids found in living organisms.

Making use gases from the air

The mixture of gases which make up air can be separated by fractional distillation.

The air is cooled until it liquifies, then it is warmed up slowly. When each gas in the liquid air reaches its boiling point, it turns from liquid to gas, and can be collected. The other gases are left in the liquid state until their boiling points are reached.