ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e

CHAPTER 3: Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work?

Core Case Study: Tropical Rainforests Are Disappearing (1)

Found near the equator 2% land surface ~50% worlds known terrestrial plant and animal species 50% destroyed or disturbed by humans
Cutting trees Growing crops Grazing cattle Building settlements

Core Case Study: Tropical Rainforests Are Disappearing (2)

Consequences of disappearing tropical rainforests
1. Decreased biodiversity as species become extinct 2. Accelerated global warming: fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere 3. Changes regional weather patterns: can lead to increase in tropical grasslands

Fig. 3-1, p. 39

3-1 What Keeps Us and Other Organisms Alive?

Concept 3-1A The four major components of the earths life-support system are the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and the biosphere (living things). Concept 3-1B Life is sustained by the flow of energy from the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within the biosphere, and gravity.

Earth Has Four Major LifeSupport Components

Atmosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere Biosphere

Fig. 3-2, p. 41

Vegetation and animals

Atmosphere
Biosphere Soil Rock Lithosphere Crust Mantle

Biosphere (living organisms) Core Atmosphere (air) Crust (soil and rock) Geosphere (crust, mantle, core) Hydrosphere (water)
Fig. 3-2, p. 41

Mantle

Three Factors Sustain Life on Earth

One-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun Cycling of matter or nutrients through parts of the biosphere Gravity

Solar Energy Reaching the Earth

Electromagnetic waves
Visible light UV radiation Heat

Natural greenhouse effect Energy in = energy out Human-enhanced global warming

Fig. 3-3, p. 41

Solar radiation

UV radiation

Reflected by atmosphere

Radiated by atmosphere as heat

Most absorbed by ozone

Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer) Visible light Troposphere Heat Absorbed by the earth Heat radiated by the earth Greenhouse effect

Fig. 3-3, p. 41

3-2 What Are the Major Components of an Ecosystem?

Concept 3-2 Some organisms produce the nutrients they need, others get the nutrients they need by consuming other organisms, and some recycle nutrients back to producers by decomposing the wastes and remains of organisms.

Ecology
How organisms interact with biotic and abiotic environment Focuses on specific levels of matter:
Organisms Populations Communities Ecosystems Biosphere

Fig. 3-4, p. 42

Biosphere Ecosystem

Parts of the earth's air,water, and soil where life is found A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place An individual living being

Community

Population

Organism

Cell Molecule
Water

The fundamental structural and functional unit of life

Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties
Fig. 3-4, p. 42

Atom
Hydrogen Oxygen

Biosphere Ecosystem

Parts of the earth's air,water, and soil where life is found A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place An individual living being

Community

Population

Organism

Cell Molecule Atom

The fundamental structural and functional unit of life

Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties Stepped Art
Fig. 3-4, p. 42

Living and Nonliving Components (1)

Abiotic
Water Air Nutrients Solar energy Rocks Heat

Living and Nonliving Components (2)

Biotic
Plants Animals Microbes Dead organisms Waste products of dead organisms

Fig. 3-5, p. 43

Precipitation

Oxygen (O2)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Producer Secondary consumer (fox) Primary consumer (rabbit)

Producers
Water Decomposers Soluble mineral nutrients
Fig. 3-5, p. 43

Trophic Levels (1)

Producers autotrophs
Photosynthesis

Consumers heterotrophs
Primary - herbivores Secondary - carnivores Third-level

Omnivores

Trophic Levels (2)

Decomposers
Release nutrients from the dead bodies of plants and animals

Detrivores
Feed on the waste or dead bodies of organisms

Fig. 3-6, p. 44

Detritus feeders

Decomposers

Carpenter Termite and Bark beetle ant galleries carpenter engraving Dry rot ant work Long-horned fungus beetle holes Wood reduced Mushroom to powder

Time progression

Powder broken down by decomposers into plant nutrients in soil

Fig. 3-6, p. 44

Production and Consumption of Energy

Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy glucose + oxygen Aerobic respiration Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

Energy Flow and Nutrient Recycling

Ecosystems sustained through:
One-way energy flow from the sun Nutrient recycling

Fig. 3-7, p. 45

Heat

Abiotic chemicals (carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, minerals)

Solar energy

Heat

Heat

Decomposers (bacteria, fungi)

Producers (plants)

Heat

Consumers (herbivores, carnivores)

Heat
Fig. 3-7, p. 45

Science Focus: Invisible Organisms (1)

Microorganisms/Microbes
Bacteria Protozoa Fungi Phytoplankton

Science Focus: Invisible Organisms (2)

Microbes can cause disease
Malaria Athletes foot

Microbes are also beneficial

Intestinal flora Purify water Phytoplankton remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

3-3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem?

Concept 3-3 As energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and webs, the amount of chemical energy available to organisms at each succeeding feeding level decreases.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Trophic levels Food chain
Sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food for the next

Food web
Network of interconnected food chains More complex than a food chain

Fig. 3-8, p. 46

First Trophic Level Producers (plants) Heat Solar energy Heat

Second Trophic Level Primary consumers (herbivores) Heat

Third Trophic Level Secondary consumers (carnivores) Heat

Fourth Trophic Level Tertiary consumers (top carnivores)

Heat Heat Heat

Decomposers and detritus feeders

Fig. 3-8, p. 46

Fig. 3-9, p. 46

Humans

Blue whale

Sperm whale

Crabeater seal

Elephant seal
Killer whale

Adelie penguin

Leopard seal

Emperor penguin Squid Fish

Petrel

Carnivorous plankton

Krill

Herbivorous zooplankton Phytoplankton

Fig. 3-9, p. 46

Usable Energy by Trophic Level

Energy flow follows the second law of thermodynamics energy lost as heat Biomass decreases with increasing trophic level Ecological efficiency typically 10% Pyramid of energy flow

Fig. 3-10, p. 47

Usable energy available at each trophic level (in kilocalories)

Tertiary consumers (human) Secondary consumers (perch) Primary consumers (zooplankton) Producers (phytoplankton) 10

Heat

Heat

100 Heat
Decomposers

Heat

1,000 Heat 10,000

Fig. 3-10, p. 47

Tertiary consumers (human)

Usable energy available at each trophic level (in kilocalories) 10

Heat

Heat

Secondary consumers (perch) Primary consumers (zooplankton)

100 Heat

Decomposers

Heat

1,000 Heat 10,000

Producers (phytoplankton)

Stepped Art Fig. 3-10, p. 47

Two Kinds of Primary Productivity

Gross primary productivity (GPP) Net primary productivity (NPP) Planets NPP limits number of consumers Humans use, waste, or destroy 1055% of earths total potential NPP Human population is less than 1% of total biomass of earths consumers

Fig. 3-11, p. 48

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Swamps and marshes Tropical rain forest Temperate forest Northern coniferous forest (taiga) Savanna Agricultural land Woodland and shrubland Temperate grassland

Tundra (arctic and alpine) Desert scrub Extreme desert

Aquatic Ecosystems
Estuaries Lakes and streams Continental shelf Open ocean 800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 5,600 6,400 7,200 8,000 8,800 9,600 Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)

Fig. 3-11, p. 48

3-4 What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem?

Concept 3-4 Matter, in the form of nutrients, cycles within and among ecosystems and in the biosphere, and human activities are altering these chemical cycles.

Biogeochemical Cycles
Nutrient cycles Reservoirs Connect all organisms through time

Hydrologic Cycle
Water cycle is powered by the sun
1. Evaporation 2. Precipitation 3. Transpiration - evaporates from plant surfaces

Water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans 84% Over land, ~90% of water reaching the atmosphere comes from transpiration

Fig. 3-12, p. 49

Climate change
Condensation Ice and snow Transpiration from plants Evaporation from land Surface runoff Runoff Lakes and reservoirs Infiltration and percolation into aquifer Condensation

Precipitation to land

Evaporation from ocean Increased flooding from wetland destruction Precipitation to ocean

Reduced recharge of aquifers and flooding from covering land with crops and buildings

Point source pollution

Surface runoff Groundwater movement (slow) Processes Processes affected by humans Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Aquifer depletion from overpumping Ocean

Fig. 3-12, p. 49

Science Focus: Waters Unique Properties (1)

Holds water molecules together hydrogen bonding Liquid over a wide temperature range Changes temperature slowly Requires large amounts of energy to evaporate

Science Focus: Waters Unique Properties (2)

Dissolves a variety of compounds Filters out UV light from the sun Adheres to a solid surface allows capillary action in plants Expands as it freezes

Carbon Cycle
Based on carbon dioxide (CO2) CO2 makes up 0.038% of atmosphere volume Major cycle processes
Aerobic respiration Photosynthesis Fossil fuel combustion and deforestation

Fossil fuels add CO2 to the atmosphere and contribute to global warming

Fig. 3-13, p. 51

Carbon dioxide in atmosphere Respiration Photosynthesis Forest fires Diffusion Animals (consumers) Burning fossil fuels

Deforestation Transportation Respiration Plants (producers) Carbon in plants (producers)

Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean Marine food webs Producers, consumers, decomposers Carbon in limestone or dolomite sediments Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway

Carbon in animals (consumers) Decomposition Carbon in fossil fuels

Compaction

Fig. 3-13, p. 51

Nitrogen Cycle
Multicellular plants and animals cannot utilize atmospheric nitrogen (N2) Nitrogen fixation Nitrification Ammonification Denitrification

Fig. 3-14, p. 52

Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Electrical storms Nitrogen oxides from burning fuel Volcanic activity Denitrification by bacteria Nitrogen in animals (consumers) Nitrification by bacteria Nitrogen in plants (producers) Nitrogen in atmosphere

Nitrates from fertilizer runoff and decomposition

Decomposition

Uptake by plants

Nitrate in soil Nitrogen loss to deep ocean sediments Nitrogen in ocean sediments

Bacteria Ammonia in soil

Fig. 3-14, p. 52

Phosphorus Cycle
Does not cycle through the atmosphere Obtained from terrestrial rock formations Limiting factor on land and in freshwater ecosystems Biologically important for producers and consumers

Fig. 3-15, p. 53

Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Phosphates in sewage Phosphates in mining waste Phosphates in fertilizer Plate tectonics

Runoff

Runoff Sea birds

Runoff Erosion

Phosphate in rock (fossil bones, guano) Phosphate in shallow ocean sediments

Animals (consumers)

Ocean food chain

Phosphate dissolved in water

Plants (producers)

Phosphate in deep ocean sediments

Bacteria

Fig. 3-15, p. 53

Sulfur Cycle
Most sulfur stored in rocks and minerals Enters atmosphere through:
Volcanic eruptions and processes Anaerobic decomposition in swamps, bogs, and tidal flats Sea spray Dust storms Forest fires

Fig. 3-16, p. 54

Sulfur dioxide in atmosphere Sulfuric acid and Sulfate deposited as acid rain Smelting Dimethyl sulfide a bacteria byproduct Burning coal Refining fossil fuels Sulfur in animals (consumers)

Sulfur in ocean sediments

Mining and extraction Decay

Sulfur in plants (producers) Decay Uptake by plants

Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway

Sulfur in soil, rock and fossil fuels

Fig. 3-16, p. 54

3-5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems?

Concept 3-5 Scientists use field research, laboratory research, and mathematical and other models to learn about ecosystems.

Field Research
Collecting data in the field by scientists Remote sensing devices Geographic information systems (GIS)

Laboratory Research
Simplified model ecosystems
Culture tubes Bottles Aquariums Greenhouses Chambers with controllable abiotic factors

How well do lab experiments correspond with the greater complexity of real ecosystems?

Scientific Studies of Ecosystems

Models
Mathematical Computer simulations

Models need to be fed real data collected in the field- baseline data Models must determine relationships among key variables

Baseline Data to Measure Earths Health

Needed to measure changes over time Lacking for many ecosystems Call for massive program to develop baseline data

Animation: Levels of organization

Animation: Linked Processes

Animation: Feedback Control of Temperature

Animation: Diet of a Red Fox

Animation: Prairie Trophic Levels

Animation: Rainforest Food Web

Animation: Energy Flow in Silver Springs

Animation: Biomes Map

Animation: Prairie Food Web

Animation: Gauses Competition Experiment

Animation: Visible Light

Animation: Energy Flow

Animation: Roles of Organisms in an Ecosystem

Animation: Matter Recycling and Energy Flow

Animation: Current and Projected Population Sizes by Region

Animation: Demographic Transition Model

Animation: Soil Profile

Animation: Species Diversity By Latitude

Animation: Area and Distance Effects

Animation: Linked Processes

Animation: Categories of Food Webs

Animation: Hydrologic Cycle

Animation: Carbon Cycle

Animation: Nitrogen Cycle

Animation: Phosphorous Cycle

Animation: Sulfur Cycle

Animation: Capture-Recapture Method

Video: Owl with Mouse

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