Multiple Access Techniques

Multiplexing and multiple access

Multiplexing: combines signals from different sources at a location. Multiple access: Signals from different locations share a common transmission media.

 Multiple Access:
Enable many mobile users to share simultaneously radio spectrum. Provide for the sharing of channel capacity between a number of transmitters at different locations. Aim to share a channel between two or more signals in such way that each signal can be received without interference from another.

High performance Duplexing generally required Frequency domain Time domain

Duplexing
In conventional telephone systems, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously, called duplexing. Duplexing
Allow the possibility of talking and listening simultaneously. Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user

Time Division Duplex (TDD)

Multiple users share a signal channel by taking turns in time domain Each duplexing channel has both a forward time slot and a reverse time slot to facilitate bidirectional communication.

Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

two bands of frequencies for every user forward band reverse band duplexer needed frequency seperation between forward band and reverse band is constant
reverse channel forward channel f frequency seperation

Time division duplexing (TDD)

uses time for forward and reverse link multiple users share a single radio channel forward time slot reverse time slot no duplexer is required
reverse channel forward channel t

time seperation

Multiple Access Techniques

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) Time division multiple access (TDMA) Code division multiple access (CDMA) Space division multiple access (SDMA) grouped as: narrowband systems wideband systems

Narrowband systems
large number of narrowband channels usually FDD Narrowband FDMA Narrowband TDMA FDMA/FDD FDMA/TDD TDMA/FDD TDMA/TDD

Logical separation FDMA/FDD

user 1 reverse channel ...

forward channel

user n reverse channel

forward channel

Logical separation FDMA/TDD

user 1 forward channel ... user n reverse channel

forward channel

reverse channel

Logical separation TDMA/FDD

forward channel user 1 reverse channel ... user n

forward channel f reverse channel

Logical separation TDMA/TDD

user 1

user n

forward channel

reverse channel

...

forward channel

reverse channel

Wideband systems
large number of transmitters on one channel TDMA techniques CDMA techniques FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques TDMA/FDD TDMA/TDD CDMA/FDD CDMA/TDD

FDMA
FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems Separates large band into smaller channels. Each channel has the ability to support user. Guard bands are used to separate channel preventing co-channel interference Narrow bandwidth (30 khz).

Code

User 4 User 2 User 3

User 1

Time

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Frequency division multiple access FDMA

one phone circuit per channel simultaneously and continuously transmitting example: in AMPS is a FDMA bandwidth of 30 kHz implemented Each transmitter is allocated a channel with a particular bandwidth. All transmitters are able to transmit simultaneously

Frequency Division Multiple Access

Allocation of separate channels to FDMA signals

Frequency Division Multiple Access

Time-frequency characteristic of FDMA

 Advantages
Simple to implement in terms of hardware. Fairly efficient with a small base population and with constant traffic.

Disadvantages
Network and spectrum planning are intensive and time consuming. Channels are dedicated for a single user, idle channels add spectrum inefficiency.
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Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

many channels - same antenna for maximum power efficiency operate near saturation near saturation power amplifiers are nonlinear nonlinearities causes signal spreading intermodulation frequencies

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

IM are undesired harmonics interference with other channels in the FDMA system decreases user C/I - decreases performance interference outside the mobile radio band: adjacent-channel interference RF filters needed - higher costs

Number of channels in a FDMA system

Bt - Bguard N= Bc N number of channels Bt total spectrum allocation Bguard guard band Bc channel bandwidth

Example: Advanced Mobile Phone System

AMPS FDMA/FDD analog cellular system 12.5 MHz per simplex band - Bt Bguard = 10 kHz ; Bc = 30 kHz
N= 12.5E6 - 2*(10E3) 30E3 = 416 channels

Time Division Multiple Access

Transmitter share a common channel. Only one transmitter is allowed to transmit at a time.
Synchronous TDMA: access to the channel is restricted to regular. Asynchronous TDMA: a station may transmit at any time that the channel is free.

TDMA
Entire bandwidth is available to the user for finite period of time. Users are allotted time slots for a channel allowing sharing of a single channel. Requires time synchronization. Each of the user takes turn in transmitting and receiving data in a round robin fashion.

Code

Time

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Time Division Multiple Access

Allocation of time slot in TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

Time-frequency characteristic of synchronous TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

time slots one user per slot buffer and burst method noncontinuous transmission digital data digital modulation

How it works?
User presses Push-to-Talk (PTT) button A control channel registers the radio to the closest base station. The BS assigns an available pair of channels. Unlike FDMA, TDMA system also assigns an available time slot within the channel. Data transmission is not continuous rather sent and received in bursts. The bursts are reassembled and appear like continuous transmission.
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 Advantages Extended battery life and talk time More efficient use of spectrum, compared to FDMA Will accommodate more users in the same spectrum space than an FDMA system Disadvantages Network and spectrum planning are intensive Multipath interference affects call quality Dropped calls are possible when users switch in and out of different cells. Higher costs due to greater equipment sophistication

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Time Division Multiple Access

time slots one user per slot buffer and burst method noncontinuous transmission digital data digital modulation

Features of TDMA
a single carrier frequency for several users handoff process much simpler No duplexers is required since users employ different time slots for transmission and reception. FDD : switch instead of duplexer very high transmission rate high synchronization overhead guard slots necessary TDMA can allocate different numbers of time slots per frame to different users, allowing bandwidth be supplied on demand to different users

Frame Structure
One TDMA Frame Preamble Information Message Trail Bits

Slot 1

Slot 2

Slot 3

Slot N

Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

The frame is cyclically repeated over time.

Time Division Multiple Access

TDMA Frame Structure (Cont.)
In TDMA, the preamble contains the address and synchronization information that both the base station and the mobiles use to identify each other.
Different TDMA standards have different TDMA frame structures.

Number of channels in a TDMA system

m*(Btot - 2*Bguard ) N= Bc

N number of channels m number of TDMA users per radio channel Btot total spectrum allocation Bguard Guard Band Bc channel bandwidth

Example: Global System for Mobile (GSM)

TDMA/FDD forward link at Btot = 25 MHz radio channels of Bc = 200 kHz if m = 8 speech channels supported, and if no guard band is assumed :
N= 8*25E6 = 1000 simultaneous users 200E3

Efficiency of TDMA
percentage of transmitted data that contain information frame efficiency f usually end user efficiency < f , because of source and channel coding How get f ?

Efficiency of TDMA
bOH = Nr*br + Nt*bp + Nt*bg + Nr*bg
bOH number of overhead bits Nr number of reference bursts per frame br reference bits per reference burst Nt number of traffic bursts per frame bp overhead bits per preamble in each slot bg equivalent bits in each guard time intervall

Efficiency of TDMA
bT = Tf * R bT total number of bits per frame Tf frame duration R channel bit rate

Efficiency of TDMA
f = (1-bOH/bT)*100%

f frame efficiency
bOH number of overhead bits per frame bT total number of bits per frame

FDMA compared to TDMA

fewer bits for synchronization fewer bits for framing higher cell site system costs higher costs for duplexer used in base station and subscriber units FDMA requires RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference

Time Division Multiple Access

Combined used of synchronous TDMA and FDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

Asynchronous TDMA: Carrier-Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Allows a transmitter to access the channel at any time that is not being used by another transmitter.

CDMA
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique used to increase spectrum efficiency. SS has been used in military applications due to anti-jamming and security.

Code

User 4 User 4 User 3 User 2 User 1

Time

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Logical separation CDMA/FDD

user 1 forward channel ... user n reverse channel

code

forward channel

reverse channel

Logical separation CDMA/TDD

user 1 forward channel ... user n reverse channel

code

forward channel

reverse channel

Features
Gradual performance degradation. Multipath fading is almost absent, due to RAKE receiver. Channel data rate is very high. Soft handoff Near far problem.

Near-Far Problem
Transmitter 1

Transmitter 2
Receiver 1

Strength of unwanted signal is high due to proximity Strength of wanted signal is low due to remoteness SNR is too low DSSS requires perfect power control

Basic Principles of CDMA

D = rate of data signal Break each bit into k chips
Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern

Chip data rate of new channel = kD

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Signal Spreading
Transmitter may transmit at the same time, in the same channel. Each signal is modified by spreading it over a large bandwidth.
This spreading occurs by combining the transmitter signal with a spreading sequence.

Spread Spectrum Features

Difficult to detect Difficult to intercept by intruder Immunity to Jamming Immunity to multi-path effects Asynchronous multiple-access capability

Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

A transmission technique in which a PN code, independent of information data, is employed as a modulation waveform to spread the signal energy over a bandwidth much greater than the signal information bandwidth. At the receiver the signal is despread using a synchronized replica of the PN code. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
A carrier is modulated by a digital code in which the code bit rate is much larger than the information signal bit rate. These systems are also called pseudo-noise systems.
Also called code division multiple access (CDMA) A short code system uses a PN code length equal to a data symbol. A long system uses a PN code length that is much longer than a data symbol.

What is spread spectrum?

Any modulation system in which modulated (spread spectrum) signal bandwidth is much greater than base band (information) signal. Spreading is achieved by a code. Code must be independent of base band signal. The same code is also known to the intended receiver to despread the signal.

SS-Multiple-Access
Multiple users are assigned orthogonal codes. They all use same spectrum but different coding. SS and CDMA are tightly coupled.

Processing gain
The ratio of BW of S.S. signal to BW of base band signal. N= Bss/B= Rc/Rb = Tb/T Also called BW expansion ratio.

Types of S.S.
FH/SS
The data signal is shifted over different frequency slots by a PN sequence
Slow FH/SS Fast FH/SS

DS/SS
Signal is directly spread by a PN sequence.

Block Diagram FH/SS

FSK Generator BPF

PN code

Freq. Synth.

FHSS
FREQ.
B A N D 1 B A N D 2 B A N D 3
SIGNAL 2 SIGNAL 3

SIGNAL 1

SIGNAL 3

SIGNAL 1

SIGNAL 2

THIS IS FREQ. HOPING CDMA. DURING EACH TIME SLOT A DIFFERENT FREQ. BAND IS ASSIGNED TO EACH SIGNAL. THE FREQ. ALLOTMENT IS DONE BY A PSUEDO RANDOM GENERATOR. EACH USER EMPLOYS A PSUEDONOISE CODE, WHICH IS ORTHOGONAL TO ALL OTHER USERS. THIS CODE HAS PROPERTY THAT

SIGNAL 1

SIGNAL 2

SIGNAL 3

Xi(t)*Xj(t) dt=C FOR i=j AND 0 FOR ij

SLOT1

SLOT2

SLOT 3 TIME

DSSS
User data is multiplied with a chip code to spread the signal Then carrier shift is provided. The receiver uses reverse process Typical receiver used are RAKE receiver. Rake receiver compares similarity of one signal with the other.

DSSS Signals
1 0 1 0

10110111000

10110111000

10110111000

10110111000

POLAR SIGNAL- Multiply

UNIPOLAR SIGNAL- XOR

Block Diagram DS/SS

User Data RF Modulator

PN code

FCDMA
Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA):
The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of subspectras with smaller bandwidths. Each of these smaller suchannels becomes a narrowband CDMA system having processing gain lower than the original CDMA system.

DS/FHMA
Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (DS/FHMA)
This technique consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom fashion. Having an advantage in that they avoid the nearfar effect.

 Advantages Greatest spectrum efficiency: CDMA improves call quality by filtering out background noise, cross-talk, and interference Simplified frequency planning - all users on a CDMA system use the same radio frequency spectrum. Random Walsh codes enhance user privacy; a spreadspectrum advantage Precise power control increases talk time and battery size for mobile phones Disadvantages Backwards compatibility techniques are costly Currently, base station equipment is expensive Low traffic areas lead to inefficient use of spectrum and equipment resources
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Merits and demerits

Space Division Multiple Access

Controls radiated energy for each user in space using spot beam antennas base station tracks user when moving cover areas with same frequency

Space Division Multiple Access

primitive applications are Sectorized antennas in future adaptive antennas simultaneously steer energy in the direction of many users at once

Reverse link problems

general problem different propagation path from user to base dynamic control of transmitting power from each user to the base station required limited by battery consumption of subscriber units.

Solution by SDMA systems

adaptive antennas promise to mitigate reverse link problems limiting case of infinitesimal beamwidth limiting case of infinitely fast track ability thereby unique channel that is free from interference all user communicate at same time using the same channel

Disadvantage of SDMA
perfect adaptive antenna system: large antenna needed compromise needed infinitely

SDMA in satellites
INTELSAT IVA SDMA dual-beam receive antenna simultaneously access from two different regions of the earth

Multiple Access Techniques in use

Multiple Access
Cellular System
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

Technique
FDMA/FDD

Global System for Mobile (GSM)

US Digital Cellular (USDC)

TDMA/FDD
TDMA/FDD

Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/TDD US Narrowband Spread Spectrum (IS-95) CDMA/FDD

OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. Also called MCM (Multi Carrier Modulation) or Coded OFDM (COFDM). One high bit rate stream is divided between many low data rate stream. Each low data rate stream is carried by a sub-carrier. This reduces ISI and fading effects.

Random Access

Random Access Methods

more efficient way of managing medium access for communicating short bursty messages
in contrast to fixed-access schemes, each user gains access to medium only when needed -has some data to send drawback: users must compete to access the medium (random access) collision of contending transmissions

Random Access Methods in Wireless Networks

can be divided into two groups:
ALOHA based-no coordination between users carrier-sense based-indirect coordination -users sense availability of medium before transmitting
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Random Access
Collision Period User 4 User 3 User 2 User 1 Time

rescheduled

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ALOHA-based Random Access

user accesses medium as soon as it has a packet ready to transmit
after transmission, user waits a length of time > round-trip delay in the network, for an ACK from the receiver if no ACK arrives, user waits a random interval of time (to avoid repeated collision) and retransmits

advantages:
simple, no synchronization among users required

disadvantages:
low throughput under heavy load conditions probability of collision increases as number of users increases

max throughput = 18% of channel capacity

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Pure-ALOHA

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Slotted ALOHA
time is divided into equal time slots when a user has a packet to transmit, the packet is buffered and transmitted at the start of the next time slot
BS transmits a beacon signal for timing, all users must synchronize their clocks

advantages:
partial packet collision avoided

Disadvantages
throughput still quite low! there is either no collision or a complete collision

max throughput = 36% of channel capacity

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Slotted ALOHA

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Example
slotted ALOHA in GSM
Two types of channels in GSM:
Traffic channels (TCH): used for transmission of user data based on FDMA/TDMA Signalling channels, used for control and management of a cellular network Random Access Channel (RACH): signalling channel for establishing access to the network (i.e. BS) employs Slotted ALOHA only channel in GSM where contention can occur
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Reservation ALOHA
Time slots are divided into reservation and transmission slots / periods
during reservation period, stations can reserve future slots in transmission period reservation slot size << transmission slot size collisions occur only in reservation slots

advantages:

disadvantages:

higher throughput under heavy loads max throughput up to 80% of channel capacity
more demanding on users as they have to obtain / keep reservation list up-to-date

R-Aloha is most commonly used in satellite systems satellite collects requests, complies reservation list and finally sends the list back to users

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R-ALOHA

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Throughput
Throughput:
The number of packets successfully transmitted through the channel per packet time.

Carrier Sense
In many situations, stations can tell if the channel is in use before trying to use it. If the channel is sensed as busy, no station will attempt to use it until it goes idle. This is the basic idea of the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocol.

CSMA Protocols
There are different variations of the CSMA protocols:
1-persistent CSMA Non-persistent CSMA p-persistent CSMA

CSMA/CD Protocol
If two stations transmits simultaneously, they will both detect the collision almost immediately. Rather than finish transmitting their packets, the stations should stop transmitting as soon as the collision is detected. This protocol is called CSMA with collision detection (CSMA/CD).