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B1 Understanding Ourselves
Revision a-d

Blood Pressure
Blood is measured in Millimetres of mercury (mmHg) Systolic Pressure is the maximum pressure the heart produces Diastolic Pressure is the blood pressure between heart beats You should get your blood measured regularly to stay safe. If untreated high blood pressure can cause blood vessels to burst, which can lead to stroke, brain damage and kidney failure

Healthy blood pressure

Reduce salt intake Maintain a healthy BMI and weight Reduce alcohol intake to avoid liver and kidney damage Try not to become stressed as stress increases blood pressure Keep exercising to keep a strong heart and a lower blood pressure

High Blood Pressure

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High blood pressure is a condition where the heart and blood vessels experience extra strain. It can be caused by: Excess weight
High stress levels Smoking

Excess alcohol
Diets that are high in saturated fat, sugar or salt

Long term high blood pressure can cause blood vessels to weaken or even burst.

Low Blood Pressure

Low blood pressure can be just as dangerous leading to problems such as:

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Poor circulation
Dizziness Fainting

Blood Pressure
Will vary according to age and lifestyle e.g.
Diet Exercise Weight Alcohol intake Stress

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Fitness & Health

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Fitness = physical activity (strength, stamina, flexibility, agility, speed) Health = free from infection

Respiration
Aerobic Respiration: Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy Anaerobic Respiration: Glucose Lactic Acid + Energy Anaerobic releases a lot less energy than aerobic does because the glucose is only partly broken down Oxygen debt is used when muscles cannot get enough oxygen quickly enough, so the cells use anaerobic respiration to release some energy After exercising he will continue to breath quickly to replace the oxygen and his heart will beat quickly to remove the lactic acid from the muscles, taking it to the liver

Anaerobic respiration
Glucose lactic acid + a bit of energy

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Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration is when energy is provided WITHOUT needing oxygen:

This happens when the body cant provide oxygen quick enough for aerobic respiration to take place. Anaerobic respiration produces energy much quicker than aerobic respiration but only produces 1/20th as much. Lactic acid is also produced, and this can build up in muscles causing cramp and an oxygen debt. This debt then needs to be repaid by deep breathing to oxidise the lactic acid.

Balanced diet
A balanced diet should contain fats, proteins and carbohydrates in roughly these amounts:

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Carbohydrates Fat Protein

It should also contain water, vitamins, minerals and fibre.

A balanced diet will depend on someones age, gender and activity

Poor diets
If we dont have a balanced diet we may suffer form a deficiency symptom:

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Lack of
Vitamin D Protein

Causes
Anaemia Scurvy (bleeding gums and joints)

Vitamin C
Vitamin A

Weak bones and teeth

Wasting of body tissue

Iron
Calcium

Rickets
Poor night vision

Other Diets
Religion:
Muslims eat halal meat, Jews do not eat pork

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Personal choice:
Vegetarians do not eat meat or fish Vegans do not eat any foods of animal origin including milk, cheese and eggs, they get their proteins from cereals, beans, peas and nuts Vegetarians and vegans must take care that they get enough vitamins e.g. B1 which is found mostly in animal products

Medical issues (allergies nut, wheat)

Body-Mass Index
Mass (kg) Height (m2)

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A commonly-used way to indicate is someone is overweight or underweight is the Body Mass Index (BMI): BMI =

BMI
<18.5

Meaning
Underweight

18.5-25
25-30 30-40

Ideal
Overweight Obese

Protein
Proteins are long chains of amino acids. There are two main types of these:

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Essential amino acids (must be eaten) = first class proteins

Non-essential amino acids (can be made in the body)

Meat and fish are first class proteins

People who do not eat enough protein will not grow properly. Protein deficiency can result in a disease called kwasiorkor, where the muscles waste away and the belly swells.

How much protein should we eat?

RDA of protein (in g) = 0.75 x body mass (in kg)

Eating disorders

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Anorexia nervosa this is a condition where sufferers restrict what they eat and sometimes starve themselves, leading to possible weight loss, abdominal pains, discoloured skin, irregular periods etc.
Bulimia nervosa this is when people vomit or take laxatives straight after eating to get the food out as quickly as possible. It can lead to weight fluctuations, poor skin, hair loss, irregular periods, tiredness etc.

The digestive system

Hydrochloric acid is produced in the stomach to kill bacteria and aids enzyme function

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The whole point of digestion is to break down our food so that we can get the bits we need from it

The main foods affected are:

CARBOHYDRATES broken down into GLUCOSE by CARBOHYDRASES

PROTEINS broken down into AMINO ACIDS by PROTEASES

FATS broken down into GLYCEROL and FATTY ACIDS by LIPASES

Bile and the liver

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Bile is a chemical produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It has 2 functions:

1) It neutralises stomach acid and produces alkaline conditions for enzymes to work in
2) It emulsifies (breaks down) fats, so provides a larger surface area on which the enzymes can act:

Fat globules

Fat droplets

A disease is any condition where the body does not work properly. It can be caused by a number of things: A spread of infection from another person (an infectious disease, e.g. A cold) Poor diets: vitamin deficiency (e.g. Scurvy)

Disease

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Mineral deficiency (e.g. Anaemia)

Organ malfunction (e.g. Diabetes) Genetic inheritance (e.g. Colour blindness)

Mutations in cells (tumours, e.g. Cancer) these can be caused by smoking, drinking, too much sun etc
Benign tumour cells e.g. Warts are slow to divide and harmless Malignant tumours are cancerous, the cells divide out of control and spread throughout the body

Pathogens
They can be breathed in through the mouth or nose

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Pathogens are microbes (micro organisms) that can cause diseases. They can enter the body in a number of ways: Symptoms of an infectious disease are caused by cell damage or toxins produced by the pathogen They can enter through cuts or bites in the skin

or other natural openings

A disease is any condition where the body isnt working as it should. This could be caused by a malfunction in the body (as with diabetes) or it could be caused by a type of pathogen:
Bacteria Viruses

Disease

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1/1000th mm big Living cells (some are harmless)

1/1,000,000th mm big Genetic info inside a protein coat

Grow very quickly

Affected by antibiotics Examples: food poisoning, tetanus, sore throats

Not affected by antibiotics

Release poisons Examples: colds, flu, polio, chicken pox

Using Antibiotics
1) Overuse of antibiotics can lead to bacteria becoming resistant (e.g. the MRSA superbug). This means that antibiotics must be used sparingly.
2) Antibiotics have no effect on a virus, like the common cold. It is difficult to kill a virus without damaging body tissue. A virus is usually allowed to run its course.

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Antibiotics can be used to kill bacteria. However, there are two problems:

Fungi

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Fungi can also cause unwanted conditions. These conditions can be treated with anti-fungal medicine and antibiotics.

Malaria
Mosquitos are vectors they carry malaria but do not suffer from it

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The weather in the UK is not warm enough for malaria which is caused by a parasitic protozoan

The protozoan gets its food from its living host e.g. humans

Microbes: our defence against them

Our bodies have defence mechanisms against invading microbes: Tears contain lysozyme, an enzyme that kills bacteria The skin acts as a waterproof barrier
If our skin is cut platelets seal the wound by clotting

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The breathing organs have hairs and produce mucus to cover the lining of these organs and trap the microbes

Our blood contains white blood cells

White blood cells

If microbes enter our body they need to be neutralised or killed. This is done by WHITE BLOOD CELLS: White blood cells do 3 things: 1) They eat the microbe (these white blood cells are called phagocytes) 2) They produce antibodies to neutralise the microbe (lymphocytes) 3) The produce antitoxins to neutralise the poisons produced by microbes (lymphocytes again)

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Producing antibodies
Youre going down

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Step 1: The lymphocyte sees the pathogen (microbe)

Step 2: The cell produces antibodies to fit the pathogen

Step 3: The antibodies fit onto the pathogens and cause them to clump

Step 4: The pathogens are eaten by the white blood cells

Specific antibodies

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Antibodies are specific they will neutralise the microbe they have been made for.

Fighting disease
NATURAL IMMUNITY This is when antibodies are produced by a person when needed or they are passed on by the mother during pregnancy. ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY

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Can be done in two ways:

1) A vaccine with dead microbes is injected the body is tricked into producing antibodies ready for the real thing. This is called PASSIVE IMMUNISATION 2) The antibodies are injected directly into the body this is called ACTIVE IMMUNISATION.

Creating Vaccinations
Vaccinations work on the basis that if the body is exposed to pathogens it familiarises them and is quicker to react next time, so small amounts of a pathogen (often dead and harmless) are injected into the body. In order to make vaccinations this process takes place
Antigen is collected Put into an animal Animal antibodies collected Injected into human to fight of pathogens

Researching new medicines

1. Is it toxic? Tests are done on animals

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Before new drugs can be approved they have to go through three stages:

2. Is it safe for humans? Human volunteers trial the drug

3. Does it work? People with the illness are tested on. This can involve using a placebo a dummy pill. Trials (blind (patient doesnt know)/double blind (nor does the Doctor)

The Nervous System

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The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) enables us to react to our surroundings. It consists mainly of the brain, the spinal chord, nerve cells (neurones) and receptors.

Types of receptor:
1) Light receptors in the eyes 2) Sound receptors in the ears

3) Taste receptors on the tongue

4) Smell receptors in the nose 5) Touch, pressure and temperature receptors in the skin 6) Changes of position receptors in the ears (balance)

Nervous Reactions
Stimulus Receptor Coordinator Oh No! Effector

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When we react to a stimulus our bodies use the following pattern:

Response For example, consider a man and a camel:

What are the stimulus, receptor, coordinator, effector and response in this situation?

Types of nerve cell

Nucleus
Cell body

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Muscle strands (effector)

Dendrites (to pick up impulses)

Axon

Fatty sheath (insulation so that the electrical impulses do not cross over)

Nerve cells (neurones) are elongated with branched endings to connect to many muscles fibres.

Synapses

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Neurones never touch each other there is a small gap between them called a synapse. A signal is sent from one neurone to the next by a chemical transmitter (acetylcholine) across the synapse. These transmitters are then destroyed.

Synapses

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Conscious actions

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A conscious action is one where the brain makes a considered response. Heres what happens: 4) The brain 3) Here another sensory neurone decides to move carries the signal to the brain away the hand 2) The impulse is carried by SENSORY NEURONES to the spinal chord 1) Receptors in your skin detect a stimulus 5) This impulse is sent by MOTOR NEURONES to the hand muscles (the effectors) via the spinal chord 6) Which then moves the hand away Receptor Sensory Neurone Effector Coordinator

Stimulus

Motor Neurone

Response

Reflex actions

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Sometimes conscious action is too slow to prevent harm, e.g

In situations like this the body bypasses the brain to produce a quicker response. Heres how it works

Reflex actions

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2. Sensory neurone
1. Receptor

3. Relay neurone in the spinal chord 4. Motor neurone 5. Effector

Vision

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Binocular vision is vision in which both eyes are used together Some animals, usually prey, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view e.g. rabbits. Other animals, usually predatory animals, have their two eyes positioned on the front of their heads, thereby allowing for binocular vision and reducing their field of view in favour of depth perception e.g. lions

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The Eye
Iris Lens

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Retina

Pupil

Optic nerve
Cornea Ciliary muscles Suspensory ligaments

The Eye
Part Cornea Iris Lens Retina Optic Nerve Function Refracts Light

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Controls how much light enters pupil Focuses light on to retina Contains light receptors Carries impulses to brain

Seeing things

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Rays of light are refracted (bent) first by the cornea and then by the lens. They focus on the retina.

Focussing on different distances

For distant objects the ciliary muscles relax and the suspensory ligaments pull tight making the lens pull thin the light doesnt bend as much. Accommodation For close objects the ciliary muscles contract allowing the lens to go fat, thus bending the light more.

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As we get older our muscles and ligaments become less flexible meaning it takes longer for them to accommodate and change their focus

Eye Problems
In short-sighted people their eyeball is too long, this means that the rays of light converge in the middle of the eye, rather than on the retina. They need to where glasses that have concave lenses in them to refract the light properly
Long-sighted people have eyeballs that are too short, meaning that the rays of light never converge! They have to wear glasses with convex lenses to refract the light correctly.

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Some people lack specialised cells in their retinas which causes red-green colour blindness