Introduction

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Introduction
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What is Computer Graphics?

(1/2)
Computer graphics generally means creation, storage and manipulation of models and images Such models come from diverse and expanding set of fields including physical, mathematical, artistic, biological, and even conceptual (abstract) structures
Frame from animation by William Latham, shown at SIGGRAPH 1992. Latham uses rules that govern patterns of natural forms to create his artwork.
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What is Computer Graphics?

(2/2)
William Fetter coined term computer graphics in 1960 to describe new design methods he was pursuing at Boeing Created a series of widely reproduced images on pen plotter exploring cockpit design, using 3D model of human body.
Perhaps the best way to define computer graphics is to find out what it is not. It is not a machine. It is not a computer, nor a group of computer programs. It is not the know-how of a graphic designer, a programmer, a writer, a motion picture specialist, or a reproduction specialist. Computer graphics is all these a consciously managed and documented technology directed toward communicating information accurately and descriptively. Computer Graphics, by William A. Fetter, 1966
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What is Interactive Computer Graphics? (1/3)

User controls contents, structure, and appearance of objects and their displayed images via rapid visual
feedback Basic components of an interactive graphics system

input (e.g., mouse, tablet and stylus, force feedback device, scanner, live video streams) processing (and storage) display/output (e.g., screen, paper-based printer, video recorder, non-linear editor)
First truly interactive graphics system, Sketchpad, pioneered at MIT by Ivan Sutherland for his 1963 Ph.D. thesis
Sketchpad in 1963. Note use of a CRT monitor, light pen and function-key panel.
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Batch (1950s now)
Before Sketchpad, output via plotters/printers, input via keypunch, both in batch
Card punching (left). IBM 704 (right) took up a whole room and was capable of about 4,000 arithmetic operations/second. Cool facts: Whirlwind, built in early 50s at MIT, cost $4.5 million and could perform 40,000 additions/second. Mac 512K, list price $3,195 in 1984, could do 500,000. Today, commodity PCs perform approximately two or three billion operations/second.
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Almost all key elements of interactive graphics system are expressed in first paragraph of Sutherlands 1963 Ph.D. thesis, Sketchpad, A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System:
The Sketchpad system uses drawing as a novel communication medium for a computer. The system contains input, output, and computation programs which enable it to interpret information drawn directly on a computer display. Sketchpad has shown the most usefulness as an aid to the understanding of processes, such as the motion of linkages, which can be described with pictures. Sketchpad also makes it easy to draw highly repetitive or highly accurate drawings and to change drawings previously drawn with it
Today, still use batch mode for final production-quality video and film (special effects fx), where one frame of a 24 fps movie may take 8-24 hours to render on fastest PC!
Render farm
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Environmental (R)evolution
Graphics has been key to technology growth in evolution of computing environments:
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) visual computing, e.g., desktop publishing, scientific visualization, information visualization
(1/6)
Apple iPhoneTM
Hardware revolution drives everything

every 12-18 months, computer power improves by factor of 2 in price / performance Moores Law
Palm TX, HP I-Paq as full PC iPhone, Blackberry for email/internet Hallmark singing card, LeapFrog Pad
Blackberry BoldTM HP I-PaqTM
graphics memory and network speeds are on even faster exponentials

Graphics chips in particular have major improvements every six to nine months (e.g. nVidia GeForce series, ATI
nVidia GeForceTM chip
Radeon series)
Leapfrog PadTM
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Character Displays (1960s now)

(2/6)
Display: text plus alphamosaic pseudo-graphics Object and command specification: command-line typing Control over appearance: coding for text formatting (.p = paragraph, .i 5 = indent 5) Application control: single task
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Vector (Calligraphic, Line Drawing) Displays (1963 1980s)

(3/6)
Display: line drawings and stroke text; 2D and 3D transformation hardware Object and command specification: command-line typing, function keys, menus Control over appearance: pseudo-WYSIWYG Application control: single or multitasked, distributed computing pioneered at Brown via mainframe host <-> minicomputer satellite
Term vector graphics survives as scalable vector graphics library from Adobe and W3C shapes as transformable objects rather than just bitmaps
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(4/6)
2D bitmap raster displays for PCs and workstations (1972 at Xerox PARC - now)
Display: windows, icons, legible text, flat earth graphics
Note: late 60s saw first use of raster graphics, especially for flight simulators
Object and command specification: minimal typing via WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer) GUI: pointand-click selection of menu items and objects, widgets and direct manipulation (e.g., drag and drop), messy desktop metaphor Control over appearance: WYSIWYG (which is really WYSIAYG, What You See Is All You Get) Application control: multi-tasking, networked clientserver computation and window management (even X terminals)
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(5/6)
3D graphics workstations (1984 at SGI now)

Display: real-time, pseudo-realistic images of 3D scenes Object and command specification: 2D, 3D and nD input devices (controlling 3+ degrees of freedom) and force feedback haptic devices for point-and-click, widgets, and direct manipulation Control over appearance: WYSIWYG (still WYSIAYG) Application control: multi-tasking, networked (client/server) computation and window management High-end PCs with hot graphics cards (nVidia GeForce, ATI Radeon) have supplanted graphics workstations Such PCs are clustered together over high speed buses or LANs to provide scalable graphics to drive tiled PowerWalls, Caves, etc.
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(6/6)
Classical time-sharing is dead, 1:n g n:1 PCs and Workstations merging in distributed heterogeneous computer networks (e.g., LANs, WANs, Internet and clusters) But file-, print- and compute-servers and network are still shared Client/server computing, component software technologies are dominant paradigms NCs (Network Computers), thin clients attached to powerful servers reprise dumb terminals and provide central control havent really taken off
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Versus
Original Macintosh
Date Price CPU Memory
New iMac 24 2008

$2200 3.06 GHz (Dual) 2.0GB DDR2 SDRAM 500GB Hard Disk 24 Color 1920 x 1200 100 dpi Mouse Keyboard Desktop WIMP
+24 x .88 x 382.5 x 15625
1984 $2500 8 MHz 128KB RAM 400KB Floppy
Storage
x 1250000
Monitor
9 Black & White 512 x 342 68 dpi

Mouse Keyboard Desktop WIMP
x 2.6 x 13.2 x 1.5
Devices
same same same
GUI
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New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

(1/9)
Multimedia: text and graphics synchronized with sound and video Hypermedia: multimedia with hypertextual links (also called Interactive Multimedia) Discredited term: Digital Convergence, merging of digital television and distributed computing, consumer electronics: set-top computers (e.g., for Interactive TV, Video-On-Demand) The Internet and Internet appliances Embedded computing (information appliances, Personal Digital Assistants) Ubiquitous/pervasive/ invisible/nomadic computing, active badges a la Xerox PARC, with hundreds of devices per person (appliances, clothing, even body parts) ; seamless computing is the dream
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(2/9)
Virtual Reality:
fully immersive VR (via Head-mounted Displays, Cave [180 George St.])
CAVE
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(3/9) VOX in Cave and Fishtank VR
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(4/9)
ADVISER: Mars data visualization
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(5/9) Arterial blood flow and bat flight visualization
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(6/9)
Cave Painting
Use feet for navigation, freeing hands for other uses

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(7/9) semi-immersive VR
Elumens VisionStation Fishtank VR on a monitor

small volume, head-tracked interactive stereo
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(8/9) augmented VR (via video see-through optics)
Video or optics superimposes computergenerated data on real world (e.g., Columbias MARS, led by our Ph.D., Steve Feiner)
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New Interaction technology
special
New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008 (9/9)

Inexpensive interaction devices from research lab into marketplace : 2D and 3D graphics no longer 3D (even time-varying, 4D) interactive illustrations as clip art/clip models coming Kids using computer graphics in rides (e.g. Aladdin, Pirates of the Caribbean) and gaming consoles (e.g. Nintendo Wii), with head-mounted displays and/or force-feedback input devices
New forms of user-interface (UI Lecture)
3D Widgets; VR demands new interaction technology
Gesture-based Interaction (Browns Sketch)
tablet PCs and electronic whiteboards present new opportunities for pen-centric, gesture-based computing Multi-touch (NYUs Jeff Han, MS Surface, Apples iPhone)
Social interfaces (Microsofts Bob and Clippie bombed, other avatars may not) Agents for indirect control
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Powerful, Inexpensive Processing

Chips are Key in graphics subsystems Advances driven by Moores Law
price/performance improves 2x every 18 months due to doubling of number of transistors only exponential growth in technology except WWW Newest processors are 64-bit, dual/quad/8 core
CPU
Server: Dual-Core Intel Itanium 2, Dual-Core Intel Xeon, Dual-Core AMD Opteron, Sun UltraSPARC T1 Desktop: Intel Core 2 Duo, AMD Athlon64 X2, IBM G5, Mac ProTM Quad/8-Core
Graphics subsystems (GPU) Physics subsystems
Commodity cards have taken over the mainstream market (nVidia GeForce, ATI Radeon) nVidia (formerly Ageia) PhysX PPU (Physics Processing Unit) Offloads physics processing from the processor and GPU AIseek Intia Processor Accelerated path finding, sensory simulation and terrain analysis
Artificial Intelligence subsystems
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Chip Technology Advances in Games & Commodity Graphics Cards

Last-generation game platforms and set-top boxes use high-end processors (128-bit architectures, great graphics capabilities)
Nintendo GameCube (powered by ATI) Sony Playstation 2 Microsoft XBoxTM
Current-generation platforms give us unprecedented performance by utilizing multicore processors

Microsoft Xbox 360 (powered by ATI) Sony Playstation 3 Nintendo WiiTM
ATI Radeon HD 4800 and nVidia GeForce GTX 280 are the top graphics cards in 2008 (approx. $200 - $300) Significant advances in commodity graphics chips every 6 months, outrunning CPU chip advances
AMD Athlon 64 X2 processors have 243 million transistors Radeon HD 4800 chip has over 900 million!
GPUs are now arguably more powerful than CPUs and programmable CPU & OS losing their hegemony as the GPU co-processor tail wags CPU dog! GPUs sometimes used instead of CPUs in clusters for high-performance computing (e.g. bioinformatics algorithms) Workstation market (and vendors) bowing to commoditization (e.g., Suns losing client market)
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Application Distinctions
Two basic paradigms
Sample-based graphics (left): discrete samples are used to describe visual information
pixels can be created by digitizing images, using a samplebased painting program, etc. often some aspect of the physical world is sampled for visualization, e.g., temperature across the US example programs: Adobe Photoshop, GIMP , Adobe AfterEffects (it came out of CS123/CS224!)
Geometry-based graphics (right): (also called scalable vector graphics or object-oriented graphics) geometrical model is created, along with various appearance attributes, and is then sampled for visualization (rendering a.k.a image synthesis);
often some aspect of physical world is visually simulated, or synthesized examples of 2D apps: Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Freehand (formerly by Macromedia), Corel CorelDRAW examples of 3D apps: Autodesks AutoCAD2009, Autodesks (formerly Alias|Wavefronts) Maya, Autodesks (formerly Discreets) 3D Studio Max
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Sampled-based Graphics
(1/2)
Images are made up of grid of discrete pixels, for 2D picture elements

CRT beam illumination pattern light intensity
1 pixel Mathematical pixel grid LCD display NB: Cant resolve adjacent pixels on CRT
Pixels are point locations with associated sample values, usually of light intensities/colors, transparency, and other control information. They are not little circles or little squares
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Sampled-based Graphics
(2/2)
Samples created directly in paint-type program, or as sampling of continuous (analog) visual materials. E.g., photograph can be sampled (light intensity/color measured at regular intervals) with many devices including:
flatbed and drum scanners digital still and motion (video) cameras add-on boards such as frame grabbers
Sample values can also be input numerically (e.g., with numbers from computed dataset) Once an image is defined as pixel-array, it can be manipulated
Image editing: changes made by user, such as cutting and pasting sections, brush-type tools, and processing selected areas Image processing: algorithmic operations that are performed on image (or pre-selected portion of image) without user intervention. Includes blurring, sharpening, edge-detection, color balancing, rotating, and warping. Preprocessing step in computer vision
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Sampling an Image
Lets do some sampling of CIT building
3D scene
A color value is measured at every grid point and used to color corresponding grid square
0 = white, 5 = gray, 10 = black
Note: this poor sampling and image reconstruction method creates blocky image
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Whats the Advantage?

Once image is defined in terms of colors at (x, y) locations on grid, can change image easily by altering location or color values E.g., if we reverse our mapping above and make 10 = white and 0 = black, the image would look like this:
Pixel information from one image can be copied and pasted into another, replacing or combining with previously stored pixels
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Whats the Disadvantage?

WYSIAYG (What You See Is All You Get): No additional information
no depth information cant examine scene from different point of view at most can play with the individual pixels or groups of pixels to change colors, enhance contrast, find edges, etc.
But recently, strong interest in image-based rendering to fake 3D scenes and arbitrary camera positions. New images constructed by interpolation, composition, warping and other operations.
Photo Tourism: Exploring photo collections in 3D (Siggraph 2006)
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Examples of 2D Image Manipulation (1/3)

There are many things possible with sampled images: uses of computer imaging range from military applications to entertainment, medicine, art, and design.
The news: digitally enhanced images are more and more common. Usually just sharpening, color balancing, but sometimes much more. To Photoshop something in:
Time Magazines O.J. Simpson cover (below left) Reuters doctored Beirut bombing photo (below right; note cloned smoke) National Geographics Pyramid cover University of Wisconsin application Faked NE blackout satellite photo
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People can now mutate into other people or objects through morphing, and can carry on conversations in different times and places
Interactive Digital Photomontage, Siggraph 2004
The belief in very strong connection between photorealistic images, still or moving, and reality is being severed
no way to tell if news photos are real photographs photographic evidence no longer considered proof in court of law without clear provenance of the image future of the family photo album?
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In artwork the processes and techniques of photography and painting are merging in the art of digital imaging
Michele Turre: the artist, her daughter, and her mother, all at 3 years of age
CS123 emphasizes geometry-based graphics but we do two assignments on sample-based graphics to learn simple image processing.
image processing in general includes image transformation: used for feature detection, pattern recognition, machine/computer vision, and most recently, for image-based rendering new field of "digital photography" (a.ka. computational photography, fauxtography) brings us many neat tricks with images, some now even done in camera
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Geometry-Based Graphics
Geometry-based graphics applications store mathematical descriptions, or models, of geometric elements (lines, polygons, polyhedrons) and associated attributes (e.g., color, material properties). Elements are primitive geometric shapes, primitives for short Images created as pixel arrays (via sampling of geometry) for viewing, but not stored as part of model. Images of many different views are generated from same model Users cannot usually work directly with individual pixels in geometry-based programs; as user manipulates geometric elements, program resamples and redisplays elements Increasingly rendering combines geometric and sample-based graphics, both as performance hack and to increase quality of final product
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What is Geometric Modeling?

What is a model?
Captures salient features (data, behavior) of thing/phenomenon being modeled
data includes geometry, appearance attributes note similarity to OOP notions
Real: some geometry inherent

physical (e.g., actual object such as a pump) non-physical (e.g., mathematical function, weather data)
Abstract: no inherent geometry, but for visualization

organizational (e.g., company org. chart) quantitative (e.g., graph of stock market)
Modeling is coping with complexity Our focus: modeling and viewing simple everyday objects Consider this:
Through 3D computer graphics, first time in human history we have abstract, easily changeable 3D forms. This has revolutionized working process of many fields science, engineering, industrial design, architecture, commerce, entertainment, etc. This has profound implications for visual thinking and visual literacy
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Lecture Topics
We manipulated primitive shapes with geometric transformations (translation, rotation, scale). These transformations are essential for model organization, process of composing complex objects from simpler components. Hierarchical models and same geometric transformations are also essential for animation Once objects geometry is established, must be viewed on screen: map from 3D to 2D for viewing and from 2D to 3D for 2D input devices (e.g., the mouse or pen/stylus) While mapping from 3D to 2D, object (surface) material properties and lighting effects are used in rendering ones constructions. This rendering process is also called image synthesis
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Decomposition of a Geometric Model

Divide and Conquer Hierarchy of geometrical components Reduction to primitives (e.g., spheres, cubes, etc.) Simple vs. not-so-simple elements (nail vs. screw)
Head
Shaft
Point
composition
decomposition
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Hierarchical (Tree) Diagram of Nail

Object to be modeled is (visually) analyzed, and then decomposed into collections of primitive shapes. Tree diagram provides visual method of expressing composed of relationships of model
Nail Head Body (cylinder) Shaft Point (cylinder) (cone) tree diagram

root node
leaf nodes
Such diagrams are part of 3D program interfaces (e.g., 3D Studio MAX, Maya) As pointer data structure to be rendered, it is called a scenegraph
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Composition of a Geometric Model

Translate Translate and Scale
Translate and Rotate Primitives in their own modeling coordinate system Composition in world (root) coordinate system
Primitives created in decomposition process must be assembled to create final object. Done with affine transformations, T, R, S (as in above example). Other composition operators will be briefly discussed later (e.g., Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) with Boolean operators).
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What Kind of Math do We Need?

Cartesian Coordinates Typically modeling space is floating point, screen space is integer
x, y Cartesian grid
Integer Grid
NB:Often, screen coordinates are measured top to bottom, based on raster scan
(0,0)
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Example 3D Primitives
Polyline Polyhedron
Sphere
Patch
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Conceptual Framework for Interactive Graphics

Graphics library/package is intermediary between application and display hardware (Graphics System) Application program maps application objects to views (images) of those objects by calling on graphics library User interaction results in modification of model and/or image Images are usually means to an end: synthesis, design, manufacturing, visualization, This hardware and software framework is more than 4 decades old but is still useful, indeed dominant
Application model
Application program
Graphics Library (GL)
Graphics System
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Graphics Library
Examples: OpenGL, DirectX, Windows Presentation Foundation Primitives Attributes
color line style material properties for 3D
Lights Transformations Immediate mode vs. retained mode

immediate mode: no stored representation, package holds only attribute state, and application must completely draw each frame retained mode: library compiles and displays from scenegraph, a complex DAG
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2D Hardware/Algorithms Outline
Display Hardware: Raster scan vs. random scan
Drawing primitives by scan conversion

Lines, polygons, circles and ellipses, characters, attributes (color, line style, fill pattern)
Clipping to clip rectangle: three methods

analytically compute intersections and draw clipped primitives test each pixel and write only if inside compute spans inside the primitive and fill entire span without testing
Color Table
indirect specification of (pseudo) color color correction, simple types of animation
BitBlt/RasterOp for operating on blocks of pixels

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Graphics Display Hardware

Vector (calligraphic, stroke, random-scan)
still used in some plotters
Ideal Drawing
Vector Drawing
Raster (TV, bitmap, pixmap), used in displays and laser printers
Raster
Outline primitives Andries van Dam
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Vector Architecture
Vector display works with display list/file stored in refresh buffer Display controller draws all vectors at < 60 Hz (often at variable rate); flicker is a problem
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2D Raster Architecture
Raster display stores bitmap/pixmap in refresh buffer, also known as bitmap, frame buffer; can be in separate hardware (VRAM) or in CPUs main memory (DRAM) Video controller draws all scan-lines at consistent > 60 Hz; separates update rate of the frame buffer and refresh rate of the CRT
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Drawing Lines
For horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines all pixels lie on ideal line: special case For lines at arbitrary angle, pick pixels closest to ideal line (Bresenhams midpoint scan conversion algorithm) For thick lines, use multiple pixels in each column or fill a rotated rectangle
Sampling continuous line on discrete grid introduces sampling errors: jaggies
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Drawing Filled Polygons

1. Find intersection of scanline with polygon edges Sort intersections by increasing x Fill the polygon between pairs of intersections (spans)
2. 3.
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Drawing Circles and Ellipses
circle outline
filled ellipse
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Thickness Attribute
Thick circle drawing by tracing rectangular pen
Treat such primitives as regions and fill them, e.g., approximate them as sequences of connected quadrilaterals
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Drawing Characters
(1/2)
For characters defined by small bitmap
selectively write pixels of refresh buffer corresponding to true bits of character bitmap
Transparent mode: dont write 0s BitBlt with OR (explained later) Opaque mode: write background color for 0s Descenders & proportional spacing easily accommodated
Base line
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Drawing Characters
(2/2)
Outline fonts: defined in terms of (mathematical) drawing primitives (lines, arcs, splines) and thus scalable, but more CPU intensive (e.g. Adobe PostScript, Microsoft TrueType)
Font design (typography is highly skilled specialty, involving graphical and algorithmic design)
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1-bit Bilevel Display
Digital intensity value Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC) analog signal to drive electron beam Black & White (or any 2 colors, depending on monitor phosphor color) Original Mac resolution was 512x384 pixels, now from 640x480 up to 2560x1600
n-Bit Display
2n intensities or colors: 1 (grayscale) or 3 (color) DACs & guns
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Image Display System Look-up Table
Any specific 2n colors may be inadequate (n typically 16-24 in low-end systems) Look-up table allows 2n colors out of 224 colors to be used in one image, some other 2n in another image
224 = approx. 16.7 million, exceeds eyes ability to discriminate (somewhere between 7-10 million)
Color table is resource managed (usually) by window manager

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Color Look Up Table Operation
Pixel value is indexed to color look up table (CLUT) where color is stored. Here we use only 12 bits (4bits per color) for clarity typically, 24 bits are used CLUT look up done at video rates, overlapped with fetch and DAC! In 24-bit true color systems, 3 x 8 bits for R, G, B; each color has its own 8-bit CLUT (0-255) CLUT allows variety of effects
pseudo coloring (LandSat images, stress diagrams, thermograms) fast image changes: change table rather than stored image multiple images: select or composite/blend animation hack
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BitBlt/RasterOp
(1/3)
Logically operate on each pixel in rectangular source and destination regions in same or different pixmaps to achieve dynamics, e.g., to move/scroll windows on screen RasterOp (Source, Destination) g Destination In some implementations either S or D may be masked, and need not be same size
pixmap
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BitBlt/RasterOp

(2/3)
AND (S,D): S can mask out pixels in D OR (S,D): S is non-destructively added to D; used for painting, transparent and kerned characters (where characters extend beyond their boxes); not as useful in n-bit systems
Heres how you can use them:
Lets say you want to add some game sprites to background 1. Mask out with black
AND
0 (black) AND anything is 0, 1 (white) AND anything is anything 2. Add sprites in
OR
0 OR anything is anything Andries van Dam September 4, 2008 Introduction #/59
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BitBlt/RasterOp

(3/3)
Replace (S,D): S destructively replaces D, i.e., is deleted and copied on top of D (also called Move); used for making opaque characters, icons, scroll Copy (S,D) as above, but S is not deleted XOR (S,D) S selectively inverts D; used in 1-bit systems for rubber-banding/dragging, cheap cursors:
S XOR (S XOR D) = D 0 = W, 1 = B XOR S XOR S
Note: effects in color systems for all but replace may be weird
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Introduction

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INTRODUCTION

Andries van Dam

What is Computer Graphics?

Andries van Dam

What is Computer Graphics?

Andries van Dam

What is Interactive Computer Graphics? (1/3)

feedback Basic components of an interactive graphics system

What is Interactive Computer Graphics? (2/3)

What is Interactive Computer Graphics? (3/3)

Andries van Dam

Hardware revolution drives everything

graphics memory and network speeds are on even faster exponentials

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam

3D graphics workstations (1984 at SGI now)

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam

New iMac 24 2008

1984 $2500 8 MHz 128KB RAM 400KB Floppy

9 Black & White 512 x 342 68 dpi

x 2.6 x 13.2 x 1.5

same same same

Andries van Dam

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

Andries van Dam

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

fully immersive VR (via Head-mounted Displays, Cave [180 George St.])

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

Andries van Dam

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

ADVISER: Mars data visualization

Andries van Dam

(5/9) Arterial blood flow and bat flight visualization

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

Andries van Dam

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

Use feet for navigation, freeing hands for other uses

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

Elumens VisionStation Fishtank VR on a monitor

Andries van Dam

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008

Andries van Dam

New Interaction technology

New Forms of Computing: 1990-2008 (9/9)

New forms of user-interface (UI Lecture)

3D Widgets; VR demands new interaction technology

Gesture-based Interaction (Browns Sketch)

Andries van Dam

Powerful, Inexpensive Processing

Graphics subsystems (GPU) Physics subsystems

Artificial Intelligence subsystems

Andries van Dam

Chip Technology Advances in Games & Commodity Graphics Cards

Current-generation platforms give us unprecedented performance by utilizing multicore processors

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam

Images are made up of grid of discrete pixels, for 2D picture elements

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam

Andries van Dam