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Week 2
Contd
On cooling the carbon will attempt to precipitate out of solution as Cementite By controlling the mode of cooling the distribution of Cementite & hence the mechanical properties can be controlled Steels are heated slowly to the Austenite region (+ 30 to 50 C) to ensure it is fully Austenitic & that the grains are as small as possible Final properties depend on the mode of cooling
Cooling
Annealing usually on cast & hot worked
steels with coarse grain structures to obtain grain refinement, stiffness & ductility Particularly necessary on components requiring additional work Involves cooling slowly in the furnace or packed in sand
Contd
Normalising air cooling from the soak
temperature Gives maximum grain refinement & consequently harder stronger steels Useful finishing treatment Pearlite formed is much finer than via annealing
Contd
Hardening quenching into oil, water or brine
from the soak temperature fast enough to prevent the formation of Pearlite New phase known as Martensite (supersaturated solution of carbon in ferrite) very hard & as a result the steels become very brittle With water quenching the steel becomes too brittle for use becomes necessary to temper steel
Contd
Tempering re-heating to the sub critical range
(approx 650 C), where stresses set up on quenching are relieved, so reducing the brittleness Steel becomes tougher at the expense of hardness Quenching & tempering are principally applied to high carbon steels, where high hardness is required or to alloy steels to achieve high strength
Welding
Extensively used for joining materials together Very complex geometries can be effectively welded Produces cleaner lines and reduces painting costs Cheaper, simpler & lighter than rivets or bolts The material is heated locally to its melting temperature Additional metal may be introduced and the joint is then allowed to cool naturally
Contd
Allows greater freedom for design Allows for continuous beams & girders Easy & quick alterations Additions can easily be made
Methods Available
Arc welding Gas welding Friction welding Spot welding Soldering Brazing Electron beam Laser Diffusion bonding
Contd
B.) The joining material should have properties that are similar to the parent metal Careful selection of welding rods etc. is therefore essential
Contd
High temperature followed by fairly rapid cooling causes changes in the metallurgy of the metal and the joint quality can be affected by: a.) Structure & quality of the weld metal b.) Structure & properties of the part of the metal in the heat affected zone
Arc Welding
The main method employed for structural steelwork is arc welding Principles Electrode or filler wire melts due to passage of welding current through the filler wire, Arc (plasma) & back to the power source via the earthed component Typically arc temperature is 5000 to 30000K The melt is transferred across the arc several mechanisms droplets, spray etc.
Welding Process
Basically require: 1.) Heat source to effect fusion 2.) Satisfactory metallurgical properties 3.) An efficient process
Processes used
Manual metal arc Automatic welding using continuous coated electrodes Submerged arc welding Carbon dioxide shielded metal arc (MIG) Electrostatic welding Stud welding
Typical Welds
Butt Weld
Full penetration
Partial penetration
Contd
Fillet Weld
t = throat
l1 = vertical leg l2 = horizontal leg t l1
l2
Defects
Residual stresses Distortions Undercut Incomplete penetration Porosity Slag inclusion
Carbon Equivalent
Metal arc welding of carbon & carbon manganese steels need to be checked by reference to BS EN 1011 2: 2001 guidance on carbon equivalents suggests suitable preheat levels to reduce cooling rate for various thicknesses & limits on hydrogen levels sometimes need post heat (heat treatment)
Empirical Formula
CE C Mn / 6 (Cr Mo V ) / 5 ( Ni Cu) / 15
C & Mn have a significant effect Cr, Mo, Ni, Cu have little effect Limited usually to CE value <0.5%
HAZ Cracking
Weld bead
HAZ crack
HAZ
Lamellar Tearing
Associated with non-metallic manganese sulphides & silicates when rolled material is extended as planer type inclusions (like wrought iron) Welds run parallel to inclusions & cracks are induced through contractile stressing across thickness of the plate
Lamellar tear
Comments on Weldability
Few problems are encountered at values <0.25% Higher values from 0.30% up to 0.70% may be tolerated if cooling is controlled & precautions taken to keep down the hydrogen content of the weld & the HAZ hydrogen can be introduced by moisture in fluxes tends to result in cold cracking unless dispersed by heat treatment
Contd
If, of the elements in this formula, only carbon and manganese are stated on the mill sheet for carbon and carbon manganese steels, then 0,03 should be added to the calculated value to allow for residual elements. Where steels of different carbon equivalent or grade are being joined, the higher carbon equivalent value should be used
Weld
MIG Equipment
Butt Weld
Slag Inclusion
X-Ray Testing